心理学专业英语基础

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ENGLISH FOR PSYCHOLOGY
Liu Yanlou
CONTENTS
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH METHODS CHAPTER THREE CONGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER FOUR DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER FIVE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER SIX ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER SEVEN SKILLS OF READING CHAPTER EIGHT SKILLS OF WRITING
CHAPTER ONE
Abstract Writing ? Writing in Social Sciences ? Writing in Natural Sciences
READINGS
心理学专业英语基础心理学·教育学专业英语改变心理学的40项研究（中文版，英文版）
RESOURCES
英语字典（牛津，朗文）现代英汉-汉英心理学词汇
Chapter 1
What is psychology ?
What is psychology ?
1. DEFINITIONS 2. THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
WHERE DID PSYCHOLOGY COME FROM WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED HOW DID PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOP
What is psychology ?
TIONS: The word "Psychology" is derived from two Greek roots:"Psyche",meaning "mind" or "soul" and "Logos",meaning "study of". Psychology, therefore,literally means "study of the mind". However,a more recent definition by Atkinson al(1991) suggests that psychology is: "The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes" et
What is psychology ?
DEFINITIONS: The word "Psychology" is derived from two Greek roots: "Psyche", meaning "mind" or "soul" and "Logos", meaning "study of".
derive:派生 roots:词根 mind:心灵；精神 soul:灵魂；心灵；精神
心理学这个单词是由psyche和logos这两个希腊词派生出来的，psyche的意思是心灵或精神，logos的意思是对……研究。
Psychology, therefore,literally means "study of the mind".
therefore:因此 literally :根据字面意思
因此，从字面上来讲，心理的意思就是对于心灵(意识)的研究。
However,a more recent definition by Atkinson et al(1991) suggests that psychology is: "The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes"
suggest:认为，建议，提议
然而，Atkinson（1991）等人提出了一个较新的定义，“心理学是对于行为与心理过程的科学研究”。心理学是研究行为和心理过程的科学。
Just giving this simple definition, however, is a bit misleading, since psychologists now and throughout their history have not only disagreed about the definition of psychology but have also strongly disagreed about what should be studied in the subject and how it should be studied.
misleading:误导的，令人误解的，引入歧途 subject:主题，科目
然而，仅仅给出这样一个简单的定义，会有一点误导，因为无论是在历史上还是现在，心理学家不仅对于心理学的定义没有达成一致，而且对于在这个学科中应该研究什么以及应该如何研究也存在
understanding of bahaviour.
Evolution:进化论 suggestion:建议，意见，观点 implication:含义，影响，（可引申为意义）
进化论——Darwin认为人类是从别的动物进化而来的。基因理论（遗传学）是由其理论发展而来的，在基因领域的发现，对于研究和理解行为有重大的影响。
BIOLOGY
2 Physiology - the discoveries, mostly by the medical profession, of the structure and function of the brain, nervous, and endocrine system have significantly contributed to the understanding of behaviour.
physiology:生理学 medical profession:医疗职业 significantly:重大地，客观地
endocrine system:内分泌系统
生理学领域尤其是医疗行业，对脑，神经，内分泌系统的结构和功能的发现，对于理解行为有重大的贡献。
PHYSICS
A subject that because of its great success has been adopted as the ideal model by scientist in psychology, who have borrowed its scientific methods and principles. Physicist, such as Fechner started applying their subject to huaman behaviour and experience(psychophysics) in the nineteenth century, with some success.
PHYSICS
A subject that because of its great success has been adopted as the ideal model by scientist in psychology, who have borrowed its scientific methods and principles.
由于这一学科的巨大成功，在心理学领域的许多科学家借鉴其科学方法和原则，将其作为理想模型。
PHYSICS
Physicist, such as Fechner started applying their subject to huaman behaviour and experience(psychophysics) in the nineteenth century, with some success.
psychophysics:心理物理学
物理学家，比如说Fechner在19世纪开始将其研究领域开拓到人类行为与经验（领域），取得了一些成功。 Fechner在19世纪开创了针对人类的行为与经验的学科—— 心理物理学，并取得了一些成功。
WHERE DID PSYCHOLOGY COME FROM? Psychology developed from three main areas of study:
PHILOSOPHY
BIOLOGY
PHYSICS
WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED?
WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED？
The date 1879 is usually said to be the start of psychology as a separate scientific discipline, since it was when Wilhelm Wundt created the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig.
WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED？
Wundt is, therefore, regarded as the “founding father” of psychology, although Americans tend to suggest that William James should have this honor since his 1890 book (which took 12 years to write) entitled Principle of Psychology was a major landmark in psychology’s literature and he began teaching a course on the relationship between physiology and psychology at Harvard University in 1875.
WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED？
The date 1879 is usually said to be the start of psychology as a separate scientific discipline, since it was when Wilhelm Wundt created the f
irst psychology laboratory in Leipzig.
discipline:学科 Leipzig:莱比锡
1879年通常被认为是心理学作为一个独立的科学学科的开始时间，因为这时Wundt在Leipzig创建了第一个心理学实验室。
WHEN DID PSYCHOLOGY STARTED？
Wundt is, therefore, regarded as the “founding father” of psychology, although Americans tend to suggest that William James should have this honor since his 1890 book (which took 12 years to write) entitled Principle of Psychology was a major landmark in psychology’s literature and he began teaching a course on the relationship between physiology and psychology at Harvard University in 1875. 因此，Wundt被认为是心理学之父，但美国人倾向于认为应该是 William James拥有这个荣誉。因为他在1890年出版了，用12年写成的《心理学原理》，这本书在心理学著作史上是一个重大的标志性事件。此外，James在1875年就开始在Harvard University教授一门关于生理学与心理学的关系的课程。
HOW DID PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOP?
Structuralism Functionalism Psychoanalysis Behaviorism Cognitive psychology Humanistic approach Biological approach
approach:接近；方法；途径
心理学是如何发展的？结构主义、功能主义（机能主义）、精神分析、行为主义、认知心理学、人本主义、生物学研究方法（生理心理学）
Structuralism
Structuralism-was the first approach to investigating psychology, pioneered by Wundt himself, who thought that the object of psychological investigation should be the conscious mind, and that it should be studied by introspection (looking inwards at one’s own mental experience) in order to break it down into its component parts (such as images, sensations and feelings) like the science of chemistry had done with chemicals.
Structuralism
One structuralist, Titchener, claimed there were a total of 46,708 basic sensations that combined to form the structure of the human mind, but the approach was very limited in its ability to explain and was replaced by functionalism.
Structuralism
Structuralism-was the first approach to investigating psychology, pioneered by Wundt himself, who thought that the object of psychological investigation should be the conscious mind, and that it should be studied by introspection (looking inwards at one’s own mental experience) in order to break it down into its component parts (such as images, sensations and feelings) like the science of chemistry had done with chemicals.
investigate:调查，研究 pioneered:倡导；作先驱 object:对象，客体 conscious:意识 introspection:内省 images:表象 sensation:感觉 feelings:情感
Structuralism
Structuralism-was the first approach to investigating psychology, pioneered by Wundt himself, who thought that the object of psychological investigation should be the conscious mind, and that it should be
studied by introspection (looking inwards at one’s own mental experience) in order to break it down into its component parts (such as images, sensations and feelings) like the science of chemistry had done with chemicals. 结构主义是第一个研究心理学的方法，是由冯特本人提出来的，他认为心理学的研究对象应该是意识，而且应该是用内省（向内探查自己的体验）的方法去研究，目的是将其分解为各个部分（比如说，表象，感觉，情感），就像化学家研究化学一样。
Structuralism
One structuralist, Titchener, claimed there were a total of 46,708 basic sensations that combined to form the structure of the human mind, but the approach was very limited in its ability to explain and was replaced by functionalism.
claimed:声称；宣称；断言
结构主义者之一，Tichener声称共有46078种基本的感觉，联合起来构成了人类意识的结构，但是这种方法在解释方面存在很大的局限，因此被功能主义取代了。
Functionalism
Functionalism-the approach William James advocated. James was influenced by Darwin’s views and argued that the workings of the mind are functional, to survive and adapt, so we should investigate what behavior and thought are for. Many of James’s insights remain valid today, but functionalism was superseded by the next two very powerful approaches that both started around the turn of the century.
Functionalism
Functionalism-the approach William James advocated. James was influenced by Darwin’s views and argued that the workings of the mind are functional, to survive and adapt, so we should investigate what behavior and thought are for.
advocated:提倡，主张，拥护 What for:为什么；为何目的
这种方法是由William James提出的。James受Darwin观点的影响，认为意识的工作方式是功能性的，也需要去生存与适应，因此，我们应该研究行为和思想的原因。
Functionalism
Many of James’s insights remain valid today, but functionalism was superseded by the next two very powerful approaches that both started around the turn of the century.
insight:眼光，洞察力 supersede: 取代，代替 valid:有效的，有根据的；正当的
James的很多观点在今天看来仍然是有用的，但是功能主义却被始于世纪之交的两种更强大（有说服力）的方法取代了。
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis-was in fact a method of the therapy developed by Sigmund Freud in Austria, but in many major books, such as The interpretation of dreams(1900), Freud began describing in detail an underlying theory of the human mind and behavior that has had an enormous (and controversial) impact on psychology. Freud argued that the proper object of psychological investigation should be the unconscious mind, and that our behavior is determined by processes of which we are no
t aware.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis-was in fact a method of the therapy developed by Sigmund Freud in Austria, but in many major books, such as The interpretation of dreams(1900), Freud began describing in detail an underlying theory of the human mind and behavior that has had an enormous (and controversial) impact on psychology.
Therapy：治疗，疗法 Underlying：隐含的，潜在的，基本的
精神分析理论—实际上是由奥地利Sigmund Freud发展出来的一种治疗方法，但是在他很多主要的书中，例如《梦的解析》（1900），Freud开始详细描述一个关于人类思想与行为的隐含的理论，对于心理学产生了重大的（并且是有争议的）影响。
Psychoanalysis
Freud argued that the proper object of psychological investigation should be the unconscious mind, and that our behavior is determined by processes of which we are not aware.
unconscious mind：无意识，潜意识
Freud认为心理学的研究对象应该是无意识，我们的行为是由我们没有意识到的心理过程所决定的。
Behaviorism
Behaviorism-Behaviorists, such as John Waston, were extremely critical of all the approaches that concerned themselves with “mind”, and proposed that psychology should only investigate observable behavior if it want to be an objective science. This approach dominated experimental psychology until the 1950s, when a strong resurgence of interest in the “mind” developed in the form of cognitive and the humanistic approaches, which suggested that behaviorism ignored all the most important and interesting things that go on in our heads.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism-Behaviorists, such as John Waston, were extremely critical of all the approaches that concerned themselves with “mind”, and proposed that psychology should only investigate observable behavior if it want to be an objective science.
concern oneself with：研究的对象是 …… objective：客观的
行为主义者，像John Waston，对所有以意识为研究对象的方法极为不满，并且认为心理学如果想成为一门客观的科学，就应该研究可以观测的行为。
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology-aims to investigate the mind by using computer information processing ideas to arrive at testable models of how the brain works, and then applying scientific methods to confirm these models. The cognitive approach has enjoyed much success and is a very dominant one in psychology today.
Testable：可验证的可验证的
认知心理学，目的是用计算机信息处理方式的观点去研究意识，建立起可验证的关于脑是如何工作的模型，然后利用科学的方法去证实这些模型。认知的方法取得了很多成功，是在当今心理学中占主导地位的研究方法之一。
Humanistic approach
The Humanistic approach, however, has had less
of an impact on psychology, since it has deliberately adopted a less scientific view of the human mind by arguing that psychology should focus on each individual’s conscious experience and aims in life.
人本主义的研究方法，对于心理学的影响较小，主要是因为对于人类意识它故意采取了不怎么科学的观点，认为心理学应该关注于每个个体在生活中的的意识经验和目标。
Biological approach
The Biological approach has advanced evolutionary, physiological, and genetic explanations for human behavior throughout the history of psychology.
生物学的研究方法在心理学的历史上，生理心理学则发展了关于人类行为的进化的、生理的和基因的观点。
Chapter 2 RESEARCH METHODS
Variables
WHAT DO PSYCHOLOGISTS INVESTIGATE?
VARIABLES A variables is any object, quality or event that changes or varies in some way. Examples include: aggression, intelligence, time, height, amount of alcohol, driving ability, attraction. OPERATIONALISATION Many of the variables that psychologists are interested in are abstract concepts, such as aggression or intelligence. Operationalisation refers to the process of making variables physically measurable or testable. This is done in psychology by recording some aspect of observable behavior that is assumed to be indicate of the variable under consideration.
Variables
For example: Aggression - a psychologist may record the number of punches thrown. Intelligence – a psychologist may record the number of puzzles solved in an hour, or calculate the score on an IQ test. Reification (regarding hypothetical variables like intelligence as having a real physical existence) is a danger, however. OBSERVATION, CASE STUDIES, SURVEYS, ETC. In these methods variable are precisely measured in varying amounts of detail. CORRELATIONS Variables are measured and compared to see how they covary with each other (what relationship they have together).
EXPERIMENTS
Variables
WHAT DO PSYCHOLOGISTS INVESTIGATE?
VARIABLES A variables is any object, quality or event that changes or varies in some way. Examples include: aggression, intelligence, time, height, amount of alcohol, driving ability, attraction.
变量是指以某种方式改变或变化的对象、质量或事件。例子包括：攻击性，智力，时间，高度，酒精含量，驾驶能力，吸引力等。
Variables
OPERATIONALISATION Many of the variables that psychologists are interested in are abstract concepts, such as aggression or intelligence. Operationalisation refers to the process of making variables physically measurable or testable. This is done in psychology by recording some aspect of observable behavior that is assumed to be indicate of the variable under consideration. 许多心理学家感兴趣的是一些抽象的概念，比如攻击性和智力。操作化是指使变量变成物理上可
测量或可验证的过程。在心理学上，这一过程的实施是通过记录一些可观察的行为来完成的，这些行为被假定为是我们所考虑的研究变量的指标。
Variables
For example: Aggression - a psychologist may record the number of punches thrown. Intelligence – a psychologist may record the number of puzzles solved in an hour, or calculate the score on an IQ test. Reification (regarding hypothetical variables like intelligence as having a real physical existence) is a danger, however.
比如说：攻击性——可记录为击拳的次数。智力——可记录为在一个小时内解决的问题数量或计算智力测验的得分。然而，具体化（指将诸如智力之类假设性的变量看成真实的物质上的存在）是危险的。
Variables
OBSERVATION, CASE STUDIES, SURVEYS, ETC. In these methods variable are precisely measured in varying amounts of detail. CORRELATIONS Variables are measured and compared to see how they co-vary with each other (what relationship they have together).
EXPERIMENTS 观察，个案研究，观察，个案研究，调查等等这些方法能从大量事实中准确地测量出变量。相关将测量到的变量相比较，以发现彼此之间如何共同变化（它们之间有何关系）。实验
EXPERIMENTS
One variable (the independent variable) is altered to see what effect it has on another variable (the dependent variable). The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in two or more conditions to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the main measured outcome of the experiment, hopefully due to the manipulation of the independent variable. For example, the independent variable (IV) of alcohol could be manipulated to see what effect it had on the dependent variable (DV) of driving ability by testing in two conditions, one with no alcohol and the other with four pints of lager.
EXPERIMENTS
However, many extraneous variables (other variables that could potentially influence the dependent variable apart from the independent variable), could spoil the experiment and so controls are employed to prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables (those that actually affect the dependent variable strongly enough to distort the effect of the independent variable).
EXPERIMENTS
One variable (the independent variable) is altered to see what effect it has on another variable (the dependent variable). The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in two or more conditions to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the main measured outcome of the experiment, hopefully due to the manipulation of the independent variable. 改变一个变量（自变量），观察它对另一个变量（因变量）有什么影响。自变量是指在两个或两个以上的条件下对其进
行操控，以发现对因变量有什么影响的变量。因变量是指实验当中主要测量的结果，期望（其变化）是由于对自变量的操控引起的。
EXPERIMENTS
For example, the independent variable (IV) of alcohol could be manipulated to see what effect it had on the dependent variable (DV) of driving ability by testing in two conditions, one with no alcohol and the other with four pints of lager. However, many extraneous variables (other variables that could potentially influence the dependent variable apart from the independent variable), could spoil the experiment and so controls are employed to prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables (those that actually affect the dependent variable strongly enough to distort the effect of the independent variable). 比如说，我们可以操纵（控制）酒精这个自变量，通过观测它的两个条件：一个是没有喝酒，另外一个是喝了4品脱的啤酒，分别对因变量驾驶能力的影响。然而，许多额外变量额外变量（除了自变量外，那些对于因变量有潜在影响的变量）可能会额外变量干扰实验，因此，需要用控制的方法来预防额外变量变成混淆变量（那些实际上对于因变量有足够大影响的，以至于可以歪曲自变量影响的变量）。
EXPERIMENTS
Extraneous variables can be either random (unsystematic variables that can affect the dependent variable but should not affect one condition more than another) or constant (those that have a systematic effect on one condition more than another). While random errors will reduce the accuracy of the results, only constant errors usually truly confound the experimental results.
额外变量可能是随机的（非系统化的，可以在多种条件下影响因变量的变量），也可能是恒定的（那些与其他条件相比，在单一条件下，对于因变量有系统影响的变量）。随机误差可能会减少结果的精确度，只有恒定误差经常真正的混淆实验结果。
Experimental methods
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS INVESTIGATE THEIR HYPOTHESES? EXPERIMENTS An experiment involves the manipulation of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while attempting to control the influence of all other extraneous variables. LABORATORY In the laboratory the researcher deliberately manipulate the independent variable while maintaining strict control over extraneous variables through standardized procedures. FIELD The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable, but does so in the subject’s own natural environment. NATURAL/QUASI The independent variable is changed by natural occurrence; the researcher just records the effect on the dependent variable. Quasi experiments are any where control is lacking over the IV.
Experimental methods
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS INVESTIGATE THEIR HYPOTHESES?
EX
PERIMENTS An experiment involves the manipulation of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while attempting to control the influence of all other extraneous variables.
心理学家是如何来研究他们假设的实验一个实验包括操纵自变量，观察它对因变量的影响，同时去尝试控制其他所有额外变量的影响。
Experimental methods
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS INVESTIGATE THEIR HYPOTHESES? LABORATORY In the laboratory the researcher deliberately manipulate the independent variable while maintaining strict control over extraneous variables through standardized procedures. 实验室实验在实验室实验中，在整个标准化的过程中，研究者审慎地操纵自变量，并且保持对于额外变量的严格控制。 FIELD The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable, but does so in the subject’s own natural environment. 现场实验研究者审慎地操纵自变量，但这是在被试自己的自然环境中进行的。 NATURAL/QUASI The independent variable is changed by natural occurrence; the researcher just records the effect on the dependent variable. Quasi experiments are any where control is lacking over the IV. 自然实验/准实验自变量是自然变化的，研究者仅仅是记录对于因变量的影响。准实验是指缺少对于自变量的控制。
Experimental methods
BANDURA ET AL (1961) Bandura manipulate the independent variable of “exposure to aggression” to see what effect it had on the dependent variable of “imitation of aggression in children” under controlled laboratory conditions by randomly allocating children to either a condition where they saw An adult being violent towards a Bobo doll, or An adult showing no violence. The number of aggression acts shown by each child was later measured in the laboratory.
Bandura操纵自变量“暴露于攻击行为中”以考察它对于因变量“儿童模仿攻击性”的影响，这是在实验室控制条件下，通过随机的将儿童分派到一个他们会看到的条件下：一个成人对于一个玩具玩玩施加暴力一个成人没有暴力随后在实验室中记录每个儿童攻击性行为的次数。
Experimental methods
The most scientific method because the Manipulation of the independent variable indicate cause and effect. Laboratory increase control and accurate measurement of variables thus more objectivity. Laboratory standardization means greater ability to replicate (repeat again) the study. Total control over all variables is not possible. Artificial laboratory conditions may produce unnatural behavior that lacks ecological validity ( results do not generalize to real life). Results more likely to be biased by sampling, demand characteristic, experimenter expectancy. May raise ethical problems of deception, etc.
Experimental methods
The most scientific method because the
Manipulation of the independent variable indicate cause and effect. Laboratory increase control and accurate measurement of variables thus more objectivity. Laboratory standardization means greater ability to replicate (repeat again) the study. 最科学的方法，因为：最科学的方法，因为：操纵因变量显示出因果关系。操纵因变量显示出因果关系。实验室增加了控制以及对于因变量的精确测量，因此更加客观。实验室增加了控制以及对于因变量的精确测量，因此更加客观。实验室标准化意味着研究的可重复性增强。实验室标准化意味着研究的可重复性增强。
Experimental methods
Total control over all variables is not possible. Artificial laboratory conditions may produce unnatural behavior that lacks ecological validity ( results do not generalize to real life). Results more likely to be biased by sampling, demand characteristic, experimenter expectancy. May raise ethical problems of deception, etc.
对所有变量的完全控制是不可能的。对所有变量的完全控制是不可能的。人工的实验室条件可能会导致非自然的行为，因此会导致缺乏生态效度（人工的实验室条件可能会导致非自然的行为，因此会导致缺乏生态效度（导致不能推广到真实情境中去）。不能推广到真实情境中去）。结果更可能受到取样偏差的影响，需求特性，实验者期望效应。结果更可能受到取样偏差的影响，需求特性，实验者期望效应。增加了很多关于欺骗的道德问题。增加了很多关于欺骗的道德问题。
Experimental methods
FESHBACH AND SINGER(1971) Feshbach and Singer manipulate the independent variable of “exposure to aggression” to see what effect it had on dependent variable of “imitation of aggression in children” by showing boys in a residential school either Aggressive television or Non-aggressive television This field study was conducted over 6 weeks, during which the boys’ aggression was rated. Feshbach and Singer 操纵自变量“暴露于攻击行为中”观察对于自变量“儿操纵自变量“暴露于攻击行为中”观察对于自变量“ 童模仿攻击性”的影响，通过向寄宿制儿童展示：童模仿攻击性”的影响，通过向寄宿制儿童展示：攻击性行为电视非攻击性行为电视这项现场实验实施了六周，期间评定儿童的攻击性行为。这项现场实验实施了六周，期间评定儿童的攻击性行为。
Experimental methods
Has greater ecological validity than laboratory experiments, since behavior occurs in its own natural environment. Less bias from sampling (subject do not have to be brought into the laboratory ) and demand characteristic ( if subject are unaware of being tested).
More bias likely from extraneous variables, due to greater difficulty of controlling all aspects
参与观察者，通过装病的方式进入到精神病医院，然后记录他们作为一个精神病人的经历。 Whyte’s (1955) 对于在美国的意大利黑帮的参与观察。
Non-experimental methods 1
Very high ecological validity if participant undisclosed, less if disclosed depending upon level of integration with subjects. Extremely detailed and in depth knowledge available, not gained from other method.
极高的生态效度，如果参与者没有暴露的话，如果暴露的话，可能较低，取决于与被试的融合水平。很详细，有深刻的认识，不能从其他方法获得。
Non-experimental methods 1
Difficult to record data promptly and objectively, and impossible to replicate exactly. Participant’s behavior may influence subjects. Ethical problems of deception with disclosed participants. Cause and effect can not be inferred. 快速客观的记录数据有困难，不能准确地重复。参与者的行为可能影响被试身份保密的参与者会导致知情权的道德问题不能做因果推论
Data recording techniques
Behavior sampling methods Event sampling Key behavioral events are recorded every time they occur. Time sampling Behavior is observed for discrete periods of time. Point sampling The behavior of just one individual in a group at a time is recorded. 数据记录技术事件取样：当关键行为事件发生时记录。时间取样：在一些分散的时间段中记录行为的发生。定点取样：在一个团体中一次仅有一个个体的行为被记录。
Data recording techniques
Advantages Event sampling Limits the behaviors observed, thus reducing the chance that the behavior of interest will be missed. Time sampling Reduces the amount of time spent in observation and thus may increase accuracy. Point sampling Increase the accuracy of observation and number of behaviors that can be recorded. 事件取样：限制行为观测（的数量），因而减少感兴趣行为被忽略的可能性。时间取样：减少了观测时的事件消耗，因而可以增加精确性。定点取样：增加了观测的精确性及可以被记录的行为。
Data recording techniques
Disadvantages Event sampling It is difficult to observe all incidents of key behavior over large areas. Other important behavior may be ignored. Time sampling Behavior may be missed if random time samples are not taken across the day. Point sampling May miss behavior in others that is important for an understanding of individual. 事件取样：在一个大的区域里对所有关键行为事件的观测是困难的。其他重要行为可能被忽略。时间取样：如果没有在全天采取随机时间取样的话，一些行为可能会被错过。定点取样：可能会忽略他人的一些对于理解个体行为具有重要的意义的行为。
Hypotheses
How do psychologists make their predictions?
Hypotheses a
ion between [variable 1] and [variable 2].
Hypotheses
2-tailed example There will be a statistically significant correlation between hours of psychology revision conducted and A level grade gained in psychology. 1-tailed example There will be a statistically significant positive correlation between hours of psychology revision conducted and A level grade gained in psychology.
Hypotheses
2-tailed example There will be no statistically significant correlation between hours of psychology revision conducted and A level grade gained in psychology. 1-tailed example There will be no statistically significant positive correlation between hours of psychology revision conducted and A level grade gained in psychology.
Non-experimental methods 2
Questioning people There are many techniques for gathering self report data, which can be employed in varying detail from the superficial survey of many people to the in-depth assessment of individuals. Interviews All interviews involve direct verbal questioning of the subject by the researcher, but differ in how structured the questions are: Structure interviews – contain fixed predetermined questions and ways of replying (e.g. yes/no ). Semi-structured interviews – contain guidelines for questions to be asked, but phrasing and timing are left up to the interviewer and answers may be open-ended. Clinical interview – semi-structure guidelines but further question to elaborate upon answers. Unstructed interview – may contain a topic area for discussion but no fixed questions or ways of answering. Interviewers helps and clarifies interview.
Non-experimental methods 2
Structure interviews – Usually used in large scale interview-based surveys, e.g. market research. Semi-structured interviews – contain guidelines for questions to be asked, but phrasing and timing are left up to the interviewer and answers may be open-ended. Clinical interview – semi-structure guidelines but further question to elaborate upon answers. Unstructed interview – may contain a topic area for discussion but no fixed questions or ways of answering. Interviewers helps and clarifies interview.
Non-experimental methods 2
Interviews Strengths: Generally, interviews generate a large amount of detailed data, especially about internal mental states/beliefs. Weaknesses: Generally interviews rely on self report data which may be untrue. Cause and effect can not be inferred.
Non-experimental methods 2
Structure interviews Examples: Usually used in large scale interview-based surveys, e.g. market research. Strengths: Easy to quantify and analyse. Reliable, replicable and generalisable. Weaknesses: Less validity – distorts/ignores data due to restricted answers or insensitivity.
Non-experimental methods 2
Semi-structure interviews Examples: Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia – a diagnostic interview. Most employment interviews. Strengths: Fairly flexible
and sensitive. Fairly reliable and easy to analyse. Weaknesses: Flexibility of phrasing and timing could lead to lower reliability. Open-ended answers or insensitivity.
Non-experimental methods 2
Clinical interviews Examples: Piaget’s interviewing of his children. Freud’s interviewing of his patients. Strengths: Very flexible, sensitive and valid. Fairly reliable and easy to analyse. Weaknesses: Flexibility leads to more difficulty in replication and bias from interviewer.
Non-experimental methods 2
Unstructured interviews Examples: Often used in humanistic based therapy interviews. Strengths: Highly detailed and valid data. Extremely flexible, natural and unconstrained. Weaknesses: Very unstandardised, therefore, not very replicable, reliable or generalisable. Difficult to quantify and analyse.
Non-experimental methods 2
Questionnaires Questionnaires are written methods of gaining data from subjects that do not necessarily require the presence of a researcher. They include: Opinion surveys, e.g. attitude scales and opinion polls. Questions can be closed or open-ended and should be precise, understandable and easy to answer. Psychological test, e.g. personality and I.Q. tests. Items need to be standardised for a population and tested to show reliability, validity and discriminatory power.
Non-experimental methods 2
Opinion surveys Examples: Likert attitude scales. Strengths: Highly replicable and easy to score (unless open-ended answers). Weaknesses: Biased by socially desirable answers, acquiescence (agreeing with items) and response set (replying in the same way).
Non-experimental methods 2
Psychological tests Examples: Eysenck’s personality inventory (to measure extroversion for example) or Bem’s sex role inventory (to assess gender role identity) Strengths: Highly replicable and standardised between individuals. Easy to score. Weaknesses: Difficulty to construct highly reliable and valid tests.
Non-experimental methods 3
Case study An idiographic method involving the long term and detailed study of an individual or a particular group. The case study method is often applied to unusual or valuable examples of behavior which may provide important insights into psychological function or refutation of psychological theory. Examples of case studies include: Freud’s studies of his patients and Piaget’s studies of his children. Correlations A method of data analysis which measures the relationship between two or more variables to see if a trend or a systematic pattern exists between them. Inferential statistics can be used to arrive at a correlation coefficient which indicates the strength and type of correlation, ranging from: Perfect negative correlation to perfect positive correlation

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