Environmental problems of the oil-and-gas industry
广州会计电算化协会-丑小鸭教案设计
ISSN 0965-5441, Petroleum Chemistry, 2006,
Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 67–72. © Pleiades Publishing,
Inc., 2006.
Original Russian Text © L.P.
Gossen, L.M. Velichkina, 2006, published in
Neftekhimiya, 2006, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp.
83–88.
Environmental Problems of the Oil-and-
Gas Industry
(Review)
L. P. Gossen
a
and L. M. Velichkina
b, 1
a
Tomsk State
University, Tomsk, Russia
b
Institute of
Petroleum Chemistry, Siberian Division, Russian
Academy of Sciences,
Akademicheskii pr. 3,
Tomsk, 634055 Russia
1
e-mail:
dmps@
Received October 21, 2005
Abstract—Some problems of general ecology as
applied to the environmental issues of oil
production and
transportation at different
stages of oil management are surveyed. Factors
responsible for the most adverse
envi-
ronmental impact attributed to oil spills
and wastewater discharge, as well as up-to-date
techniques of oil spill
cleanup, are discussed.
DOI: 10.1134S0010
All stages of oil
management beginning from explo-
ration and
production and ending with the use of
petro-
leum products are accompanied by strong
environmen-
tal pollution. Note that a human
receives the highest
concentration of a
pollutant, since he occurs on the last
trophic
level of the ecology pyramid of biomass
and
consumes matter and energy from all other
levels. That
is, exerting the technogenic
impact on the environment,
a human thereby
turns out to harbor pollutants at their
highest
level and encounters the boomerang
effect,
which is what the law of pollution
distribution in the
life zone is frequently and
quite justly called [1].
However, petroleum
remains the most effective and
convenient kind
of fuel even at the contemporary level
of
development of science and technology.
According
to prediction [2], the world demand
for crude oil will
grow (Fig. 1), although it
was speculated a few years
ago that there would
be at least a stabilization of oil
pro-
duction, if not a decrease in the
incremental produced-
oil volume.
Judging by
explored reserves, almost all oil around
the
world will have been produced by 2020–2030
[2];
however, according to Kontorovich [3], the
total
amount of disseminated hydrocarbons in
terrestrial sed-
imentary rocks is
approximately 80 × 10
17
t, which
is
several tens of times the explored reserves
(2.2 × 10
17
t).
The predicted dynamics
of oil production (Fig. 2)
[4] show that the
OPEC countries are the major suppli-
ers of oil
to the world market. By 2020, Russia
will
either stabilize oil production or
somewhat increase it
at the expense of West
Siberia regions. About 40% of
this increment
will be made by low-pay oil fields with
a
production of less than 10 tons a day by new
wells.
However, there is a tendency of some oil
fields, e.g.,
the Samotlor field, to decrease the
rate of recovery
(Fig. 3) [5].
67
Chemical pollution due to atmospheric
emissions of
petroleum hydrocarbons and their
transformation prod-
ucts poses the greatest
threat to the environment. The
quantitative
assessment of some types of pollution by
oil-
and-gas industry facilities during a setback in
oil
production is given in Table 1 [6].
Oil
producing and oil refining enterprises
currently
release about 2000 t of chemicals in
the atmosphere and
discharge above 70 million
tons of polluted wastewater
into water bodies
per annum. Gas industry enterprises
“improve”
the quality of the environment, discharging
ten
times less wastewater.
The urban atmosphere,
especially that of megalopo-
lises, is 90%
polluted by automobile transport.
Approx-
Million barrelday
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
19701996
United
States
Asia
2020Years
Western
Europe
Total
Fig. 1. Demand for crude oil in
industrialized countries [2].
68
Million barrelday
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1970
Years
50
100
GOSSEN,
VELICHKINA
Million
tons
150
0
197519852
Years
Fig. 3.
Dynamics of oil production in Russia by the
example
of the Samotlor oil field [5].
Eastern Europe and former USSR
countries
OPECOther states
Fig. 2. World oil
production rate [4].
imate amounts of
principal components of exhaust
gases from
internal combustion engines are shown in
Table
2 [7]. Thousands of automobiles with spark
igni-
tion engines discharge into atmospheric
air about 3 t
CO, 100 kg NO
x
, 500 kg of
gasoline incomplete com-
bustion products a
day. The use of sour fuels also results
in the
appearance of SO
2
in exhausts, and the use
of
leaded gasoline yields nitrogen oxides,
lead, and lead
compounds. The amount of lead in
air is directly related
to the traffic intensity
and may reach 4–12 mgm
3
.
Substantial
pollution of the environment is also
caused by
oil spills, wastewater discharge, and
inciner-
ation or disposal of petroleum
wastes.
Oil spills and sludge accumulation
accompanying
oil and gas production lead to
damage to the soil and
vegetation cover; soil
washout (erosion); desertification
(sand-dune
formation); and, as a consequence, a
decrease
in the available land; and simplification,
as
well as a decrease in the population, of
ecosystems. For
example, during the time of
development of the
Tyumen oil region, the area
of deer pastures decreased
by 6 million ha, 25
thousand ha of land was water-
flooded, and 48
thousand ha was contaminated by
chemicals and
overflowed with drilling muds as early
as 1996
[8].
The peculiarity of environmental problems
arising
in relation to oil production is due to
three groups of
factors: specific geographic
conditions of producing
regions, oil recovery
technology, and particular compo-
sition and
properties of produced oil and reservoir
fluid.
These factors have the most tangible
effect when pro-
duction facilities become
older, as well as in the case of
routine or
accidental blowouts during preparation,
pro-
cessing, and transportation of crude
hydrocarbon mate-
rial or petroleum products
[9].
The domestic and foreign experience shows
that,
despite the very strict reliability
requirements and large
expenditures for
technical maintenance, safe operation
of
pipeline networks is practically impossible.
There-
fore, petroleum companies, along with
strengthening
the reliability requirements
imposed on pipeline sys-
tems, used to take all
measures to be ready to react
immediately in
the case of an emergency. Such mea-
sures, for
example, are realized at the ANK Bashneft’
in
the 2001–2003 Republican program of
reliability
growth and safe operation of
pipeline transport in the
republic of
Bashkortostan [10].
Solid impurities that are
present in processed and
auxiliary materials
used at refineries lead to the forma-
tion of
waste such as petroleum sludge (PG). Sludges
of
this kind are heavy petroleum residues,
which contain
on average 10–56% petroleum
products, 30–85%
water, and 1.3–46% solids. The
yield of sludge is about
Table 1.
Environmental pollution in the Russian Federation
in 1991–1995 [6]
Industry
Oil
producing
Oil refining
Gas producing and
processing
Atmospheric emissions
from
stationary sources, thousand t
1991
2346
14396
1195
1992
2138
1359
2489
1
993
1863
1197
2256
1994
1952
105
2
2245
1995
1923
1028
2308
Disch
arge of polluted wastewater
to water bodies,
million t
31994
75
236
7.5
1995
72
261
6.8
406367
325 325
280
5.03.6 4.3
PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY Vol.
46 No. 2 2006
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE OIL-AND-GAS
INDUSTRY (REVIEW)69
7 kg per ton of refined
petroleum, thus making it
responsible for the
accumulation of a huge amount of
refinery
wastes. During storage in so-called
sludge
ponds (earthen pits), such waste settles
to form an
upper layer composed mainly of an
aqueous emulsion
of petroleum products, a
middle layer including water
contaminated by
petrochemicals and suspended partic-
ulate
matter, and a bottom layer of which more
than
half is made by a wet solid phase
impregnated by petro-
leum products. Petroleum
sludge management prima-
rily concerns the
necessity of reducing the stability
of
emulsions and suspensions than make such
sludge. In
particular, by dewatering and drying
these wastes, it is
possible to reclaim them
for further processing to
desired products
according to existing schemes [11].
facilitated by a broader use of reliable waste
manage-
Prevention of damage to the environment
can be
ment technologies in oil producing and
oil refining
industries not only for petroleum
sludges but also for
spent drilling fluids
(SDFs). The principal lines in man-
agement of
these wastes are summarized on the basis
of
published data [12–22] in Fig. 4.
drilling fluids for redrilling of wells,
especially in the
In the Russian literature,
data on the use of spent
case of multiple
drilling or in regions with a
developed
transportation network, appeared long
ago. However,
calculations have shown that the
cost of SDF transpor-
tation over a distance
greater than 250 km begins to
exceed the cost
of the drilling mud prepared on site. In
[13,
14], a process for safe management of SDFs,
in
particular, the recovery of active drilling-
mud compo-
nents by preparing a mud powder, was
proposed. A
wide application of the proposed
processes is still
impeded by the lack of
effective and available technical
means of
recovery of clay components from spent
drill-
ing fluids. The use of petroleum refinery
sludge as a
feedstock for the manufacture of
expanded clay might
have promise, since the
presence of petroleum and
organic compounds in
refinery sludge ensure a good
blowing effect in
the clay paste during baking [15].
Successful
solution of this problem depends in
many
respects on organization of special
production lines that
are maximally close to
the regions of mass well drilling
and, thus,
can make realization of these important
envi-
ronment protection and resource-saving
measures eco-
nomically viable and profitable.
Although a wide vari-
ety of industrial
processes for PS and SDF treatment
have been
proposed and tested to date [16–22], this
waste
management issue still remains a pressing
prob-
lem for oil refining and oil producing
enterprises.
cessing of liquid petroleum
refinery sludges into fuel
A PS management
technology that suggests the pro-
oil,
manufacture of binders and commercial
petroleum
[15], as well as biological
degradation of solid petro-
leum sludges such
as bottom deposits and contami-
nated soils,
also seems to hold promise. There is
the
practice of solidification of sludge wastes
[17], their use
in soil melioration [18], and
other management options.
PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY
Vol. 46 No. 2 2006
Table 2.
gases
from internal combustion engines [7]
Concentrations of principal components of
exhaust
Component
Engine
spark
ignitiondiesel
Carbon monoxide0.5–12.0 vol
%0.001–0.05 vol %
Hydrogen0.1–5.0 vol
%–
Oxygen0.3–8.0 vol %2.0–18 vol
%
Nitrogen74–77 vol %76–78 vol %
Nitrogen
oxides
(NO
0.001–0.8 vol %0.0005–0.5 vol
%
x
)
Water vapor3.0–5.5 vol %0.5–4 vol
%
Soot0.0–0.04 gm
3
0.01–1.1
gm
3
Aldehydes0.0–0.2 mgl0.001–0.01
mgl
Hydrocarbons0.2–3.0 vol %0.01–0.5 vol
%
Benzopyrene10–20 gm
3
5–10
gm
3
Decontaminated soil can be used in
construction works
or landscaping [22].
mental protection regulations were issued, the
SDF
In the last decade since the time the new
environ-
management problem in the oil industry
has received
progressively increased attention.
However, the most
available means of waste
treatment, unfortunately, is
still waste
disposal or burning. This leads to
additional
pollution of the environment as a
result of evaporation
of hydrocarbons into the
atmosphere orand percolation
through surface
soil to underlying soil and water-bear-
ing
horizons. It was found that, after the
decommission-
ing of PS disposal sites, the
degree of contamination of
water gradually
decreases, remaining however rather
high over
the next ten years [22].
pipelines. In both
cases, there is a risk of
environmental
Produced oil is usually
transported in tankers or by
pollution.
Pipeline accidents are a particularly
charac-
teristic event in Russia, which has a
tremendously
extended pipeline network—200
thousand km of trunk
pipelines and 350 thousand
km of field gathering pipe-
lines. Whatever the
causes of pipeline damage (they are
definitely
known [23, 24]), it should be noted that
the
corrosive power of oil–water emulsions
pumped
through pipelines has dramatically
increased in recent
years [25–27]. This is due
to the high hydrogen sulfide
content of crude
oil that is currently produced and to the
use
of various water-flooding methods.
Unfortunately,
Russian enterprises are quite
slow to draw on the expe-
rience of application
of new pipe materials and multi-
layer antirust
coatings, including polymer-based mate-
rials
[28, 29]. At the same time, oil additives
that
decrease the viscosity of oil flow in a
pipeline are
actively retrieved [30], and the
use of polymer compo-
sitions in oil production
and transportation is being
examined [31],
although no industrial appraisal of
these
studies has been made. The practice of
testing polymer
compositions for cleaning oil
pipelines and oil produc-
70
Oilrig wastewater
GOSSEN, VELICHKINA
Spent drilling fluid and oily
sludge
Utilization
for
drilling
Utilization after completion
of
well construction
Management by low-
waste
and nonwaste technologies
-water
recycling
(rig
technical
needs)
-preparation
of drilling
muds
-preparation
of cement
slurries
-drill string test
-sucking to the
oil
gathering and treating
system;
-land
irrigation;
-injection
into
absorption
wells;
-safe discharge
to
environmental
entities
-reuse for
drilling
new boreholes
-additives to
well
cementing fluids;
-manufacture of
expanded
clay and heavy building
ceramics;
-manufacture of land-
reclamation
materials and soil-aggregating
agents
for remediation of rig
territory
-preparation of mud powder;
-
processing of liquid PS
to fuel
oil;
-manufacture
of binder
materials
Fig. 4. Basic lines in oilrig waste
management [12–22].
ing equipment of n-paraffin
crystallization products,
which form insoluble
deposits during oil storage and
transportation,
is also extended [32–34].
A true environmental
disaster is oil spills on sea and
ocean
surfaces. These spills are due to both
loading–
unloading operations and tanker
accidents. A sad list of
tanker accidents might
be presented, but their propor-
tion in oil
pollution of the marine environment is
rela-
tively small. Three times more oil enters
this environ-
ment as a result of tank cleaning
operations; refinery
waste discharges
contaminate seas and oceans at a four-
fold
higher rate, and almost the same amount of
oil
comes there from offshore rigs.
Figure
5 [5] depicts the distribution of
hydrocarbons
in different layers of sea water
after oil spillage. As can
be seen, a portion
of petroleum components is accumu-
lated in
depths with time, since oil biodegradation
pro-
cesses occur at a slow rate in the surface
layer because
of the low temperature. A third
of the amount of oil
spilled evaporates from
the surface film into the atmo-
sphere.
Combating oil spills is an extremely labor-
consum-
ing and costly task. The major portion
of oil upon its
spillage can be collected by
mechanical means [10, 35–
38], including the
use of oil skimmers of various
designs, e.g.,
drum-type skimmers [9]. Nonetheless, the
use of
mechanical methods does not ensure the
required
degree of water surface cleaning of
oil spills. As applied
to a water surface,
mechanical methods harmonize with
oil
combustion onsite using fire-resistant booms,
a
combination that makes it possible to remove
oil almost
completely from the water surface.
An equally important problem is the removal of
oil
spills from soil [39, 40], including the
subsequent
abatement on bioremediation grounds
[41, 42]. Of
particular interest is fine soil
remediation according to
so-called microbial
technologies consisting in appli-
cation of
mono- and multicultures of oil-
digesting
microorganisms [43–45], in
particular, using land-rec-
lamation minerals
[45] or peat–mineral compositions
containing a
significant amount of hydrocarbon-oxi-
dizing
microflora [46–49]. Microbial technologies
using
compositions that do not contain corrosive
com-
ponents have also found use for increasing
oil recov-
ery. Such compositions stimulate the
metabolism of
formation microflora and the
generation by microor-
ganisms of
biosurfactants that facilitate additional
oil
washing. The release of an additional
volume of CO
2
during the hydrolysis of
components of oil-displacing
compositions by
microflora decreases the viscosity of
oil
[50–52].
Much attention has been given to the
cleanup of
oil-polluted wastewaters, as these
are a source of
pollution of environmental
compartments (water,
soil). Some authors
propose wastewater cleanup pro-
cesses for the
removal of trace oil using new
high-
performance adsorbents based on various
polymers
and polymer materials, including
fibrous polymeric
sorbents [53–55], ultrafine
oxide adsorbents [56],
and natural zeolites
[57, 58].
PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY Vol. 46
No. 2 2006
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE OIL-AND-GAS
INDUSTRY (REVIEW)71
Oil film, contains 60%
of
hydrocarbons
of which 50% evaporate
into
atmosphere
Atmosphere
Near-surface
layer
(contains 30%
Water
of
hydrocarbons)
At 100 m depth
(contains
10%)
Fig. 5.
and ocean surfaces [5].
Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons between
sea
shows that there are many problems of
environmental
This short survey of the
environmental situation
concern in the
petrochemical branch of industry that
demand
immediate solution. The general environmen-
tal
situation now is such that, in addition to
maximum
allowable concentrations and maximum
allowable
emissions, it is necessary to
introduce the concept of
maximum allowable
consumption as suggested by
Parenago and
Davydova [5]. This will presumably per-
mit
mankind to prevent irreversible catastrophic
conse-
quences, for example, those associated
with uncontrol-
lable risks due to tectonic
changes in the Earth’s crust
that can result
from the formation of voids in the
Earth’s
strata owing to production of natural
gas and oil. All
these problems call for
special consideration.
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