Chapter Four Translation Methods
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Chapter Four Translation Methods
Literal and free translation(直译与意译) Alienation and adaptation（异化与归化） Semantic and communicative translation（语义翻译与交际翻译）
I. Literal and free translation
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC, which is almost all through the translation history both in China and the west. Literal translation: The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the words are translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. 所谓直译，就是既保持原文内容又保持原文形式的翻译方法或翻译文字。（冯庆华， 1997） Free translation: Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original.(Peter Newmark, 2001) 所谓意译，就是只保持原文内容不保持原文形式的翻译方法或翻译文字。 （冯庆华， 1997）
Literal translation strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech (比喻). Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. ? to kill two birds with one stone Literal translation: 一石二鸟 Free translation: 一箭双雕；一举两得 ? 望梅止渴 Literal translation: to gaze at plums to quench one’s thirst Free translation: to console oneself with false hopes; imagined satisfaction ? And I do not mistrust the future; I do not fear what is ahead. For our problems are large, but our heart is larger. Our challenges are great, but our will is greater. And if our flaws are endless, God’s love is truly boundless. 直译（按字面词义）：而我不是不相信未来；我不害怕即将来临的事情 即将来临的事情。因为我们的问题 即将来临的事情 是大的 大的，但是我们的心更大 我们的挑战 心更大。我们的挑战 大的 心更大 我们的挑战是大的，但是我们的决心更大。如果我们的
缺点是没完没了 没完没了的，上帝的爱是真正无穷无尽 无穷无尽的。 没完没了 无穷无尽 意译（按实际词义）：我并非不信任未来；我不害怕我们面临的问题。我们的问题很多 我们面临的问题。 很多， 我们面临的问题 很多 但我们的心胸更宽广 我们面临的挑战很严峻 心胸更宽广。我们面临的挑战很严峻 更坚定无比。如果说我 心胸更宽广 我们面临的挑战很严峻，但我们的决心更坚定无比 更坚定无比 们的弊病层出不穷 层出不穷，上帝
的爱则真正是广袤无边 广袤无边。 层出不穷 广袤无边
Which one is preferable, literal or free translation? This can only be determined in specific context. As a matter of fact, these two methods are always overlapping and are often combined in the process of translation. Translation of a text, even of a particular section or sentence can be more or less literal—more or less free. Generally speaking, legal or political documents, academic papers, and news reports and so on require more literal translation; while lyric, poetry, and novels and so on require more free translation. But we should avoid two extremes: In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. (limit!) Translation should be as literal as possible and as free as is necessary. (Peter Newmark) Provided that equivalent-effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation. there is no excuse for unnecessary ‘synonyms’, let alone paraphrases, in any type of translation.(Peter Newmark)
Successful literal translation can always enrich the target language: ? Crocodile’s tears --–鳄鱼的眼泪 ? Armed to the teeth武装到牙齿 ? Chain reaction连锁反应 Gentlemen’s agreement君子协定
a wolf in sheep’s clothing披着羊皮的狼 ? The eye is the window of the heart/mind眼睛是心灵的窗户 ? an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth以眼还眼, 以牙还牙 ? 纸老虎paper tiger 丢脸lose face
一国两制one country, two systems
II. Alienation and Adaptation foreignization and domestication
This pair of concepts was first proposed by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in his
book “The translator’s Invisibility”(《译者的隐形》) in 1995. Alienation and adaptation can be considered as concepts extended from literal and free translation, but they are different. The main concern of literal and free translation is how to deal with form and content on linguistic level, while alienation and adaptation extend their concern to not only linguistic but cultural and aesthetic factors.
Alienation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original by preserving the way of SL expression (but within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures). Adaptation reproduces the precise contextual meaning of the original by using the idiomatic way of TL expression. The aim of alienation is to preserve the cultural value of the SL text, and to maintain the kind of exotic atmosphere(异国情调) in the TL text. The aim of adaptation is to obtain smooth TL text that is readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership, but the cultural features of the SL are often l
ost in adaptation, and sometimes adaptation may cause misleading. ? I supposed I should be condemned in Hareton Earnshaw’s heart, if not by his mouth, to the lowest pit in the infernal regions…(E. Bronte: Wuthering Heights, Ch.18, ) 我想，哈雷顿·厄恩肖即便嘴里不说，心里也要诅咒我下到十八层地狱里去……
※ 十八层地狱—a Buddhism term(佛教术语), uttered from the mouth of a Christian, may cause
cultural dislocation(文化错位)，thus being misleading. So better to adopt alienation: 下到地
狱的最底层.
However, the application of alienation should also have a limit, which lies in two aspects: the limit of the target language and its culture; and the limit of the TL readers’ acceptability. ? She could not desert Tara; she belonged to the red acres far more than they could ever belong to her. (M. Mitchell: Gone with the Wind, p.20) 她不会放弃塔拉；她属于这些红土地，远比它们属于她更加真实。
※ It preserves the sentence structure of SL text, but the language is awkward and causes
confusion to the TL readers. So better to adopt adaptation by using Chinese idiomatic way of expression: 她不能放弃塔拉，这块红土地是属于她的，而她更是永远属于这块红土地。
Of cause, application of adaptation should not exceed its limit either. Abuse of TL idioms is a common mistaken idea(常见误区) in translation. Actually, it’s inadvisable to use several types of idioms in translating: idioms that reflect special
custom(eg. 拂袖而去，罄竹难书); idioms that are related with Chinese or English characters (eg. 目不识丁，八字没一撇); idioms that contain place names(eg. 稳如泰山，黔驴技穷， 洛阳纸贵); idioms that contain people’s names(eg. 名落孙山，事后诸葛亮). To sum up, translation should adopt as much alienation as possible and as much adaptation as is necessary. Adaptation should be kept to the “mere linguistic level”(纯语言层面)，while on the “cultural level”(文化层面), alienation should be adopted to the maximum.
III. Semantic and Communicative translation
Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. （Peter Newmark: Approaches to Translation）
In general, a semantic translation is written at the author’s linguistic level, a communicative at the readership’s. Semantic translation is personal and individual, follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact. Communicative translation is social, concentrates on the message and the main force of the text, tends
to under-translate, to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and resourceful style.
A semantic translation is normally inferior to its original, as there is both cognitive and pragmatic loss; a communicative translation is often better than its original. Theoretically, communicative translation allows the translator no more freedom than semantic translation. In fact, it does, since the translator is serving a putative large and not well defined readership, while in semantic translation, he is following a single well defined authority, i.e. the author of the SL text. (Peter Newmark: A Textbook of Translation)
Exercises
1. High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing. 在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋 雨后春笋般地涌现。（归化） 雨后春笋
2. Each of us has his carrot and stick. In my case, the stick is my slackening physical condition,
which keeps me from beating opponents at tennis whom I overwhelmed two years ago. My carrot is to win. (C. Tucker: “Fear of Dearth”) 我们人人都有自己的压力和动力。就我而言，这压力就是我日趋衰弱的身体状况，两年 前还是我手下败将的网球对手，现在却打不过了。我的动力就是想赢球。（归化） （“胡萝卜加大棒”霸权主义政策misleading故不宜异化; carrot诱惑（物）stick 强迫 （力），威胁（力） ） 3. “Of course it may,” said Angel. “was it not proved nineteen hundred years ago—if I may trespass upon your domain a little?” “当然可以啦，”安琪说道。“恕我冒昧地说一句你们的行话：这个事实不是一千年以前 就被证明过了吗？”（异化）
4. Second, there is the New York of the commuter—the city that is devoured by locusts each day and spat out each night. (E. B. White: “The Three New Yorks”) 其次是家住郊区、乘公交车到市内上班的人们的纽约—这座城市每到白天就被如蝗的人 群吞噬进去，每到晚上又给吐出来。（异化）
5. I passed out of my mind, and the next thing I knew I was sitting down on the ground, very cold in the shadows, and looking up at the rock where I had been within an eyelash of eternity… There are such reflections, and for some of them I have the names. (N. S. Momaday: “The End of My Childhood”) 我当时晕了过去，等醒来时，发现自己坐在地上，阴影笼罩中，只觉浑身冷冰冰的。我 抬头看看上面的石壁，我刚才撑在那里险些丧生……现在我还有这样的回忆，其中一些 我还能说出名目来。（异化、归化并用）