《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 练习题 参考答案
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.
2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
答： The major branches of linguistics are:
(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;
(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;
(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;
(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;
(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.
3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?
答： Speech and writing are the tw
sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
4) Displacement
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.
5) Cultural transmission
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.
答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.
The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”
The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”
The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?
答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.
Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.
2. What is voicing and how is it caused?
答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.
3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?
答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.
In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indi
cate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].
Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].
4. How are the English consonants classified?
答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.
5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?
答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.
6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:
1) voiced palatal affricate
2) voiceless labiodental fricative
3) voiced alveolar stop
4) front, close, short
5) back, semi-open, long
6) voiceless bilabial stop
B. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:
1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]
答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]
B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid
(3) voiceless palatal affricate (
4) voiced bilabial glide
(5) back, close, short (6) front, open
7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?
答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].
8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?
答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.
9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.
答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.
There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.
We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or
[m].
The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.
Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.
10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?
答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.
Chapter 3 Morphology
1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:
a. microfile e. telecommunication
b. bedraggled f. forefather
c. announcement g. psychophysics
d. predigestion h. mechanist
答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + ed
c. announce + ment d. pre + digest + ion
e. tele + communicate + ion f. fore + father
d wings.
12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）
a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.
b) Herbert bought a house that she loved
c) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.
13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.
a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)
you would come tomorrow (deep structure)
b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)
Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)
c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)
who broke the window (deep structure)
Chapter 5 Semantics
1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?
答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.
(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.
2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?
答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.
Examples（略）
3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.
答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms
(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word i
a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEAVY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “My bag is heavy”. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:
a) The room is messy.
b) Oh, it is raining!
c) The music of the movie is good.
d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.
答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.
b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”, he meant they couldn’t play outside.
c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person said, “The story of the movie is very moving”, so when the other person said, “The music of the movie is good”, he meant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.
d) A person wanted his notes back, so when he said, “you have been keeping my notes for a whole week now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.
5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.
答： According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying someth
ve?
答： Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.
Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified” variety performs its functions as trading and employment.
8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?
答： Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.
Chapter 9 Language and Culture
1. Try to sum up the relation between language and culture. Can you find similar relationship between local dialect and regional culture?
答： The relation between language and culture is dialectical. Every language is part of a culture. As such, it cannot but serve and reflect cultural needs. Within tile broad limits set by the specific needs of a culture, a language is free to make arbitrary selections of signified. That is to say, language is not a passive reflector of culture. Even assuming that culture is in many cases the first cause in the language-culture relationship, language as the effect in the first link of the causal chain will in turn be the cause in the next link, reinforcing and preserving beliefs and customs and conditioning their future course. We can find similar relationship between local dialect and regional culture. For example, in China, there are many local dialects and many regional operas. Those regional operas can only be performed in the local dialects; meanwhile those regional operas are part of local cultures.
2. What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.
答： The studies have shed new light on our understanding of the hypothesis: people tend to sort out and distinguish experiences differently according to the semantic categories provided by their different codes.
Here is an example. English-speaking culture teaches its people to name what is practical, useful and important. In a general sense, the important things take on specific names while the less important things have general names that must be modified through additional words to become specific. A good illustration of t
his point is the word snow in Eskimo and English.
3. Can you find some loan words in Chinese from other language? How were they used in the original language and how are they used in Chinese?
答： There are many loan words in Chinese from other languages. For example, “哲学” comes from Japanese, and “雷达” comes from English. These two words have the same meaning in both languages. The former refers to a discipline, and the latter refers to a machine which can detect an object far away by radio.
…
4. Based on your own learning experiences, please illustrate how important it is to learn its culture when learning a foreign language.
答： Based on my own learning experiences, I find it is very important to learn its culture when learning a foreign language, A typical example of these is that when greeting acquaintances, we tend to say "Have you eaten?", which will cause misunderstanding to a foreigner.
5. What do you think of linguistic imperialism and cultural imperialism? Is it nonsense or something worth consideration?
答： Linguistic imperialism is closely related to cultural imperialism. Linguistic imperialism is a kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. With the monopoly of one language over others, its accompanied ideologies, structures and practices will be a potential threat to the individual cultural identity and cultural integrity. From this, we can know that linguistic imperialism is something worth consideration.
6. Work out the meaning of the following underlined expressions.
Find its origin and corresponding Chinese expressions.
a) The boss offers a high pay, but he wants his pound of flesh back in return and make them working very hard.
b) All work and no pay makes Jack a dull boy.
c) That's a dear John letter saying that she would never come back again.
d) The best fish swim near the bottom.
e) By so doing, they have actually opened a Pandora's box.
f) Any engineer worth his salt should know how to deal with such problems.
g) The little girl is the apple of her father’s eye.
答：a) 无情逼索全部债务；合法但极不合理的要求。
源自莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》第4幕第1场
b) 只工作不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。
源自谚语。
c) 绝交信；要求解除婚约的信。
源自美国口语。
d) 好鱼游水底，良鸟藏深山。
源自谚语。
e) 潘多拉的盒子；一切灾难的根源。
源自希腊神话。
f) 能胜任．值得雇用。
源自古语。
g) 珍爱的人。
源自古语。
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition
1. Try to explain the terms:
Language acquisition
Language Acquisition Device
Critical Period Hypothesis,
答： Language acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and spea
ience, give at least three examples which are related to overgeneralization and performance errors.
答：Overgeneralization: * I losed the game.
* There are ten sheeps.
* I was devoted to do this job.
5. What kind of a language learner you are? Have you ever thought of why and how you learn English?
答：(略)
6. List the learning strategies you use frequently, and then compare that with the strategy listed in 11. 8.
答：(略)
7. Identify personality factors that may contribute to the success of learning a second/foreign language.
答： The personality traits such as extroversion, talkativeness, self-esteem, self-confidence may contribute to the success of learning a second/foreign language.
Chapter 12 Language and Brain
1. What is neurolinguistics and what does it study?
答：(略)
2. What distinguishes the human brain from a non-human brain?
答： It is the cerebral cortex flint distinguishes the human brain from a non-human brain. The cerebral cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and storehouse of "memory". It receives messages from all the sensory organs and initiates all voluntary actions. It is the cerebral cortex that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world and it is within the human cortex that the secrets of language representation and processing are to be found. Animals, reptiles and amphibians, for example, have no cortex all.
3. Give names to each component of the human brain. ...
答：(略)
4. Describe the major symptoms of Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, and acquired dyslexia.
答： Broca's aphasia displays several characteristics. Phonologically, the speech of Broca's aphasics is very halting and lack of normal sentence intonation. That is to say, patients have great difficulty in accurately producing the needed phonemes to say a word. When they say, they say very slowly and have a lot of hesitations. Syntactically, Broca's aphasics produce telegraphic speech, i.e. they omit the functional words that we would be likely to omit when we write a telegram and besides, they tend to omit inflectional affixes such as -ing, and -ed in words such as reading and worked. They often show difficulty judging the grammaticality of sentences.
Unlike Broca's aphasics, Wernicke's aphasics are generally unaware of their deficit. Patients cannot express themselves because they cannot understand what they have just said and use that understanding in the planning of what to say next. Wernicke's aphasics also show reading and writing deficits comparable to their deficits in speaking and listening, The written production of Wernicke's aphasics is formally very good with correct spelling and handwriting, but like their speaking, makes little sense. Reading comprehension is also severely impaired in Wernicke's aphasia. Patients can see the letters and words, but cannot make any sense of them.
There are two types of acquired dyslexia: phonological dyslexia and