6000000-奋力的近义词

指)----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Note:
?tLinguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.

?tE.g
?tI like the tiny brown dog.
Meaning Relations
?tNot only do words have meaning properties (such as ambiguity, or having a meaning). they also bear various meaning relations to one another.(P238)

Major sense relations
?tSynonymy 同义词
?tAntonymy 反义词
?tPolysemy多义词
?t Homonymy 同音异义；同形异义
?tHyponymy 下义关系
Synonymy
?t For example, one central meaning relation is synonym, "sameness" of meaning or "paraphrase." Thus, we say that automobile is synonymous with car. plane (in one of its senses) is synonymous with aircraft, kid (in one of its senses) is synonymous with child, and so on.(P239)

?tSynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
?t1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…
2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…

Synonymy
3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, orator- accomplice,…
4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …
5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…
Antonymy
?tSometimes words can share an aspect of meaning but be "opposite'' in some other aspect of meaning. We say that such sets of words are antonymous. (P240)


?tTypical examples of word antonymy include the following:
?tSmall and large share the notion "size" but differ in degree.
?tCold and hot share the notion "temperature" but differ in degree.
Antonymy
?tGradable antonyms渐次反义词
?tComplementary antonyms互补反义词
?tRelational opposites相反反义

Gradable antonyms
?tGradable antonyms ----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …
Gradable antonymy
?tgood ----------------------- bad
?tlong ----------------------- short
?tbig ----------------------- small
?tCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.
?tCan have comparative forms.
?tCan be asked with how.

?tThey are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.
Complementary antonyms
?tComplementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-femal
e, …
Complementary antonymy
?talive : dead
?tmale : female
?tpresent : absent
?tinnocent : guilty

?tIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.
?tIn other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.

?tRelational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …
Relational opposites
?tbuy : sell
?tlend : borrow
?tgive : receive
?tparent : child
?thusband : wife

?tThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.
Polysemy
?tPolysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:
?tA piece of furniture
?tAll the people seated at a table
?tThe food that is put on a table
?tA thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.
?tOrderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.
……
Homonymy
?tWords may also be homophonous; that is, they may have identical pronunciations but have distinct spellings in the written language, such as Mary. marry, and merry.
?tTwo words with the same spelling (and pronunciation) are homonymous (i.e.. they are homonyms). (P239)

?tAn often-cited example of homonymy is the word bank referring to the side of a river versus the word bank referring to a financial institution.

?tHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
?tHomophone同音异义---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …

?tHomogragh同形异义---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …
?tComplete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …
Note:
?tA polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
Hyponymy
?t Another important meaning relation is meaning inclusion, illustrated bellow :
?ta. The meaning of sister includes the meaning of female.
?tb. The meaning of kill includes the meaning of dead.(P239)
Hyponymy
?tHyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
?tSuperordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.
?tHyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.
?tCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.
Hyponymy
?tInclusiveness
?tA is included in / a kind of B.
?tCf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower
?tSuperordinate/hypernym: the more general term
?tHyponym: the more specific term
?tCo-hyponyms: members of
the same class
Animal

bird fish insect animal

human animal

tiger lion elephant ...

?tThe word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific word are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
Hyponymy
?tSuperordinate: flower
?tHyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …

?tSuperordinate: furniture
?tHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …
Sense relations between sentences
?t(1) X is synonymous with Y同义
?t(2) X is inconsistent with Y对立
?t(3) X entails Y蕴含
?t(4) X presupposes Y预设
?t(5) X is a contradiction矛盾
?t(6) X is semantically anomalous不规则

X is synonymous with Y
?tX: He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never got married all his life.

?tX: The boy killed the cat.
Y: The cat was killed by the boy.
?tIf X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.
X is inconsistent with Y
?tX: He is single.
?tY: He has a wife.

?tX: This is my first visit to Beijing.
?tY: I have been to Beijing twice.

?tIf X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.
X entails Y
?tThe most central semantics is entailment. One sentence S is said to entail another sentence S’ when the truth of the first guarantees the truth of the second, and the falsity of the second guarantees the falsity of the first, as in (18):
?ta. The ear is red entails The car has a color.
?tb. The needle is too short entails The needle is not long enough. (P244)

?tX: John married a blond heiress.
?tY: John married a blond.

?tX: Marry has been to Beijing.
?tY: Marry has been to China.
?tEntailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.
?tIf X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.
?tIn formula: A→B -B→-A
X presupposes Y
?t Closely related to entailment is another truth relation semantic presupposition.

?tThe basic idea behind semantic presupposition is that the falsity of the presupposed sentence causes the presupposing sentence not to have a truth value (T or F) (P245)


?t……both a sentence and its denial have the same semantic presupposition.

?ta. The present king of France is bald
?tb. The present king of France is not bald
?tc. There is a present icing of France.(P245)

?tX: His bike needs repairing.
?tY: He has a bike.

?tPaul has given up smoking.
?tPaul once smoked.
?tIf X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.
?tIn formula: A→B -A→B
X is a contradiction
?t*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

?t*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.
X is semantically anomalous
?t*The man is pregnant.

?t*The table has bad intentions.

?t*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.
Analysis of meaning
?tComponential analysis
?tPredication analysis
Comp
onential analysis
?tComponential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning.
?tThe approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

?tThe study of meaning in any language shows that lexical items overlap in meaning and share common properties.
?te.g. Lions and tigers both contain an element of “wild animalness”. Calf, puppy and baby can be considered as all sharing an element of non adultness, while cow, woman and tigress all containing an element of ‘femaleness’.
?tBut because of other properties each word contains, none of them will be said as being synonymous to any one of the others.

?tOne attempt to account for this phenomenon is to assume that lexical items, like phonemes are made up out of a number of component parts. Componential analysis is often seen as a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists.

?tOne way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols, which are usually written in capitalized letters, with “+” “-“ before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it.

Componential Analysis
?tHUMAN
?tman (ADULT, MALE)
?twoman (ADULT, FEMALE)
?tboy (NON-ADULT, MALE)
?tgirl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)
Animal words
Domestic animals
English motion verbs

?tMan: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]
?tBoy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]
?tWoman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]
?tGirl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

More complex ones
?tfather: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
?tx is a parent of y, and x is male.
?ttake: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
?tx causes x to have y.
?tgive: CAUSE (x, (~HAVE (x, y)))
?tx causes x not to have y.

?tAdvantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain words, we may better account for sense relations,
?tSynonymy ---- having the same semantic components
?tAntonymy ----- having a contrasting component
?tHyponymy-----having all semantic components of another.

?tDisadvantages: It would be senseless to analyze the meaning of every word by breaking it into its meaning components.

5.2 Meaning & Syntactic Structure
?tThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.

?tThe cat is chasing the mouse.
?tThe mouse is chasing the cat.

?tI have read that book.
?tThat book I have read.

?tThe daughter of Queen Elizabeth’s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth’s daughter.
Predication analysis(述谓结构分析)
?t1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.

?t2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.
?t*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.
?t*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.
?tWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
Predication analysis
?tPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).
?tPredication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) 论元and predicate（谓语）.

?tAn argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.
?tA predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

Predicate Logic
?tArgument and Predicate
?tJohn runs. ? runs’ (John’) or R(j)
?tJohn loves Mary. ? loves’ (John’, Mary’) or L(j, m)
?tJohn gave Mary a book. ? gave’ (John’, Mary’, book’) or G(j, m, b)

?tOne-place predicate: run
?tTwo-place predicate: love
?tThree-place predicate: give
Predication analysis
?tAccording to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:
?tOne-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …
?tTwo-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…
?tThree-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …
?tNo-place predication: It is hot.
Predication analysis
?tTom smokes. ? TOM (SMOKE)
?tThe tree grows well. ? TREE (GROW)
?tThe kids like apples. ? KIDS (LIKE) APPLE
?tI sent him a letter. ? I (SEND) HIM LETTER

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