小虎子-写场景的作文

英美概况复习
此为大学英语专业考试内容，下文含翻译。
USA
I. Geography
1. Geographic Features
1.1 The Eastern Highlands
Formed by the Appalachian Range.?
1. An average elevation of 800 meters above the sea level.?
2. The highest peak:? Mount Mitchell (1856 m)：the highest peak of
the Appalachian Range ?
3. East: the narrow Atlantic Coast plain
1.2 The Central Plains
1. Vast plains between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains?
2. Drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries?
3. Usually divided into two regions:?
1) the Great Plains in the west: vast treeless prairies in the west and
agricultural areas in the east?
2) the Central Lowland in the east: from the five Great Lakes to central
Texas
1.3 The Western Mountains
High plateaus and mountainous country?
1. The Rocky Mountains: over 3,000 meters above the sea level?
The continental divide of the United States ?
2. West of the Rockies:? the Columbia Plateau in the north ?
the Colorado Plateau in the south
Grand Canyon,the Great Basin in between?
The Pacific Mountain System consists of three regions: The Cascade Range,
the Sierra-Nevada, and the Pacific Coast Range.?
The Sierras contain Mount Whitney (4421m), the highest peak in the US
outside Alaska.?
Death Valley in eastern California, 85 meters below sea level


2. Climate
The United States has a large size and a wide range of geographic features.
Every type of climate is represented in the country: The climate is
temperate in most areas, tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida, polar
in Alaska, semi-arid in the Great Plains west of the 100th meridian, desert
in the Southwest, Mediterranean in Coastal California, arid in the Great
Basin?
Extreme weather is common: the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are
prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the
continental United States, primarily in the Midwest.

3. Rivers
The Mississippi River (Great River, Big River in Indian language) is 3,770
km long: the second longest river in the United States. It originates from
Minnesota and empties into the Gulf of Mexico.?
The Missouri River is 4,090 km long. It is the longest river (longest
branch of the Mississippi). It is a Mississippi tributary, flowing from
the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin and emptying into
the Mississippi River.
The length of the Mississippi-Missouri- Jefferson combination is
approximately 6,262 km?
The Arkansas River (2,364 km) is the second longest tributary of the
Mississippi River. The Ohio River is the largest Mississippi tributary
measured by water volume.?
The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America.
Rising in British Columbia, Canada, it runs 3,700 km long, emptying into
the Bering Sea.

5 great lakes


II． American History
1. Where did the first Americans come from and why did they migrate to
America?
Book P 4-5
2. American Civil war
The American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the
States, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern
slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the
Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis,
they fought against the U.S. federal government (the “Union”), which
was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states.
2.1 The Causes
The coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly
anti-slavery North made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal
laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858
House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread
of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that
it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle
in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created
territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become
free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession.
Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would
wither and die.
The coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slavery

North made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against
slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided
Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place
it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course
of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s
focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories.
All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states,
which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and
South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die.
Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery
forces, and Northern fears that the slave power already controlled the
government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Sectional
disagreements over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and
the economic merits of free labor vs. slave plantations caused the Whig
and “Know-Nothing” parties to collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free
Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in
1860). In 1860, the last remaining national political party, the
Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.
2.2 Factors Affecting the Process and Results
What greatly affected the process as well as the result of the war
were the differences between the South and the North in their strategies,
geographical features, technology, and manpower and finance.
2.2.1 Strategies
As men poured into the armies, Northern and Southern leaders discussed
strategies that would achieve victory.
Northern armies would have to invade the Confederacy, destroy its
capacity to wage war, and crush the will of the Southern people to resist.
The Confederacy could win by prolonging the war to a point where the
Northern people would consider the effort too costly in lives and money
to persist.
The South had a compelling example in the American Revolution of a
seemingly weaker power defeating a much stronger one. If the North chose
not to mount a military effort to coerce the seceded states back into the
Union, the Confederacy would win independence by default.
Lincoln and other Northern leaders, however, had no intention of
letting the Southern states go without a fight. The most prominent
American military figure in the spring of 1861 was Winfield Scott, the
general-in-chief of the United States Army. With a brilliant mind, Scott
conceived a long- range strategy to bring Northern victory. Scott’s plan
sought to apply pressure on the Confederacy from all sides. A combined
force of naval and army units would sweep down the Mississippi River,
dividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western states. At the same time,
the Union navy would institute a blockade to deny the Confederacy access
to European manufactured goods. Should the South continue to resist even

after the loss of the Mississippi and the closing of its ports, Scott
envisioned a major invasion into the heart of the Confederacy.
2.2.2 Geography
Geography played a major role in how effectively the two sides were
able to carry out their strategies.
The sheer size of the Confederacy posed a daunting obstacle to
Northern military forces. Totaling more than 1,940,000 km2 and without
a well-developed network of roads, the Southern landscape challenged the
North’s ability to supply armies that maneuvered at increasing distances
from Union bases.
It was also almost impossible to make the North’s blockade of
Southern ports completely effective because the South’s coastline
stretched 5600 km and contained nearly 200 harbors and mouths of navigable
rivers.
The Appalachian Mountains also hindered rapid movement of Northern
forces between the eastern and western areas of the Confederacy while the
Shenandoah Valley of Virginia offered a protected route through which
Confederate armies could invade the North.
The placement of Southern rivers, however, favored the North. The
Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers provided excellent
north-south avenues of advance for Union armies west of the Appalachians.

2.2.3 Technology
Technological advances helped both sides deal with the great
distances over which the armies fought. The Civil War was the first large
conflict that featured railroads and the telegraph. Railroads rapidly
moved hundreds of thousands of soldiers and vast quantities of supplies;
the North contained almost twice as many miles of railroad lines as the
South. Telegraphic communication permitted both governments to
coordinate military movements on sprawling geographical fronts.
The combatants also took advantage of numerous other recent advances
in military technology. The most important was the rifle musket carried
by most of the infantrymen on both sides. The rifle musket, with an
effective range of 225 to 275 meters, allowed defenders to break up attacks
long before they reached the defenders’ positions.
Other new technologies included ironclad warships, which were used
by both sides; the deployment of manned balloons for aerial reconnaissance
on battlefields, used mainly by the North. The technology for all of these
weapons had been present before the Civil War, but never before had armies
applied the technology so widely.

2.2.4 Manpower and Finance
At the beginning of the war, state militias provided most of the troops
for both Union and Confederate armies. Soon large numbers of civilians

were volunteering for military service. Throughout the war, the bulk of
the forces consisted of volunteers.

When the number of volunteers lagged behind the growing battle
casualties, both the Northern and Southern governments resorted to
drafting men into the armies. The Confederacy passed the first draft act
in April 1862. The Union followed almost a year later.
Although the draft itself did not produce a sufficient number of
soldiers, the threat of being drafted led many to volunteer and collect
a bounty, which was paid to volunteers. Some soldiers were unscrupulous
enough to enlist, desert, and reenlist to collect the bounty more than
once.
The Civil War, like all wars, called for great sums of money to pay
troops and supply them with equipment. At the outset of the war the
Confederacy depended on loans, but this source of finance soon disappeared
as Southerners began to be affected financially by the cost of the war
and unable to buy bonds. Instead it relied on paper money, freely printed.
The Confederacy suffered greatly from severe inflation and debt
throughout the war. The Confederate rate of inflation was about 9200%.
The Union financed its armies by loans and taxes to a much greater
degree than the Confederacy, even resorting to an income tax. The people
of the North were more prosperous than those of the South. A national
banking system was established by Congress to stimulate sales of U.S.
bonds. Northerners had savings with which they could buy the bonds and
had earnings from which taxes could be taken.

2.3 The Process


2.6.1 Eastern Theater (1861-1863)
2.6.3 Western Theater (1861-1863)
2.6.4 Trans-Mississippi Theater (1861-1865)

3. America in World War I
World War I, military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918,
that involved many of the countries of Europe as well as the United States
and other nations throughout the world.
World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in
European history.
Of the 65 million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were
killed and more than 20 million wounded.
The term World War I did not come into general use until a second
worldwide conflict broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known
as the Great War or the World War.

1.1 Coalitions Involved
The war began as a clash between two coalitions of European countries.
The first coalition, known as the Allied Powers, included the United
Kingdom, France, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Russian Empire.
The Central Powers, which opposed them, consisted of the empires of
Germany and Austria-Hungary.
1.2 The Immediate Cause
The immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria- Hungary, by a Serbian
nationalist.
The fundamental causes of the conflict, however, were rooted deeply in
the European history of the previous century, particularly in the
political and economic policies that prevailed in Europe after 1871, the
year that Germany emerged as a major European power.

2. The Great Depression
On October 24, 1929, the American stock market crashed. Billions of
dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. This led to
a long economic depression.
However, the post-war industrial boom and the prosperity were soon to
vanish. The Great Depression in the United States, worst and longest
economic collapse in the history of the modern industrial world, began
from the end of 1929 until the early 1940s.
2.1 The Causes
The depression was caused by a number of serious weaknesses in the
economy.

It is a common misconception that the stock market crash of October 1929
was the cause of the Great Depression. The two events were closely related,
but both were the results of deep problems in the modern economy that were
building up through the “prosperity decade” of the 1920s.
As is typical of post-war periods, Americans in the Roaring Twenties
turned inward, away from international issues and social concerns and
toward greater individualism.
The self-centered attitudes of the 1920s seemed to fit nicely with
the needs of the economy. Modern industry had the capacity to produce vast
quantities of consumer goods, but this created a fundamental problem:
Prosperity could continue only if demand was made to grow as rapidly as
supply. Accordingly, people had to be persuaded to abandon such
traditional values as saving, postponing pleasures and purchases, and
buying only what they needed. Advertising methods were used to persuade
people to buy such relatively new products as automobiles and such
completely new ones as radios and household appliances. The resulting mass
consumption kept the economy going through most of the 1920s.

But there was an underlying economic problem: Income was distributed
very unevenly, and the portion going to the wealthiest Americans grew
larger as the decade proceeded. This was due largely to two factors: While
businesses showed remarkable gains in productivity during the 1920s,
workers got a relatively small share of the wealth this produced. Between
1923 and 1929, manufacturing output per person-hour increased by 32
percent, but workers’ wages grew by only 8 percent. Corporate profits
shot up by 65 percent in the same period.
As a result of these trends, in 1929 the top 0.1 percent of American
families had a total income equal to that of the bottom 42 percent. This
meant that many people who were willing to purchase new products did not
have enough money to do so. To get around this difficulty, the 1920s
produced another innovation—“credit,” an attractive name for consumer
debt. People were allowed to “buy now, pay later.”
International problems also weakened the economy. After World War
I the United States became the world’s chief creditor as European
countries struggled to pay war debts and reparations. Many American
bankers were not ready for this new role. They lent heavily and unwisely
to borrowers in Europe, especially Germany, who would have difficulty
repaying the loans, particularly if there was a serious economic downturn.
These huge debts made the international banking structure extremely
unstable by the late 1920s.
In addition, the United States maintained high tariffs on goods
imported from other countries, at the same time that it was making foreign
loans and trying to export products. This combination could not be
sustained: If other nations could not sell their goods in the United States,
they could not make enough money to buy American products or repay American
loans.
The rising incomes of the wealthiest Americans fueled rapid growth
in the stock market, especially between 1927 and 1929. Soon the prices
of stocks were rising far beyond the worth of the shares of the companies
they represented. People were willing to pay inflated prices because they
believed the stock prices would continue to rise and they could soon sell
their stocks at a profit.
In 1928 the Dow Jones industrial average, an index that tracks the
stock prices of key industrial companies, doubled in value in less than
two years. But the stock boom could not last. The great bull market of
the late 1920s was a classic example of a speculative “bubble” scheme.
In the fall of 1929 confidence that prices would keep rising faltered,
then failed.
Starting in late October the market plummeted as investors began
selling stocks. On October 29, known as Black Tuesday, the worst day of
the panic, stocks lost $$10 billion to $$15 billion in value. By mid- November
almost all of the gains of the previous two years had been wiped out, with

losses estimated at $$30 billion.
The stock market crash announced the beginning of the Great
Depression.

2.3 Roosevelt’s New Deal
The initial government response to the Great Depression was
ineffective, as President Hoover insisted that the economy was sound and
that prosperity would soon return.
But business owners saw no reason to increase production while unsold
goods clogged their shelves. By 1932 investment had dropped to less than
5 percent of its 1929 level. By the election year of 1932, the depression
had made Hoover so unpopular that the election of the Democratic
presidential candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt was all but assured.
Shortly after his inauguration in 1933, Roosevelt quickly lifted the
nation’s spirits with the rapid and unprecedented actions of the New
Deal.
The New Deal produced a wide variety of programs to reduce
unemployment, assist businesses and agriculture, regulate banking and the
stock market, and provide security for the needy, elderly, and disabled.
The basic idea of early New Deal programs was to lower the supply of goods
to the current, depressed level of consumption. The government sought to
raise farm prices by paying farmers not to grow surplus crops and to create
codes for many industries that regulated competition while guaranteeing
minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. The New Deal also tried to
increase demand, pumping large amounts of money into the economy through
public works programs and relief measures.
Public works projects not only provided jobs but built schools, dams,
and roads. The New Deal helped people to survive the depression.
Unemployment was reduced, but remained high through the 1930s. Farm income
rose from a low of $$1.9 billion in 1932 to $$4.2 billion in 1940. The demands
of the depression led the United States to institute social-security
programs and accept labor unions, measures that had been taken decades
earlier in many European nations.
3.2.1 US and Japanese Conflict
In the final result, however, the United States had little choice in the
matter. When France had fallen to Germany, Japan had begun to move into
French Indo- China, which had been France's source of rubber and was
thought to be rich in oil. The United States government had no desire to
see Japan in possession of its own stocks of these essential resources
and so threatened to place an embargo on these goods. The Japanese
responded in an unexpected way. On Sunday, 7 December 1941, Japanese naval
aircraft attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at anchor at Pearl Harbor in the
Hawaiian islands. The Pearl Harbor Attack brought the United States into
the war on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States

on December

The Congress
The United States
Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the
United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the
House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen
through direct election.
As provided by the United States Constitution, each of the 435
members of the House of Representatives represents a district and serves
a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by
population. The 100 Senators serve staggered six-year terms. Each state
has two senators, regardless of population. Every two years,
approximately one-third of the Senate is elected.



checks and balances:
The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the
executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the
power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of
the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This called
“checks and balances”.


What is American General Education?
见书

English

2.1 The Iberians
1) They are the earliest settlers on the British Isles.

2.2 The Celts
1) From 700 B.C. Celts came in several successive waves from the Upper
Rhineland and began to inhabit British Isles.
2) The fair-haired Celts imposed themselves as an aristocracy on the
conquered tribes of Iberians throughout Britain and Ireland.
3) These people found refuge in the mountains to the north and west.
4) At least two big waves of Celtic invasion can be distinguished: first
the Gaels or Goidels, still found in Ireland and Scotland, came over as
early as 600 B.C.; secondly the Cymric and Brythons, still found in Wales,
come over before 300 B.C.
3. Roman Britain

3.1 Roman Invasion
Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain
controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410.
The Romans referred to their province as Britannia.
Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and
economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new
developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture,
leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.
It is believed that the Celts were related with the ancient people
in what is now France. They gave some help in the struggle to resist the
Roman invasion of France. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by Julius
Caesar, invaded England in 55 BC. He landed in Kent with several thousand
Roman troops, but meeting resistance and bad weather, the Roman withdrew
soon after. In the following year, Julius Caesar and the Romans went across
the English Channel and invaded Britain for the second time. Julius Caesar
and his soldiers did not stay long in England before they withdrew again.
The invasion marked the beginning of English recorded history because
Julius Caesar kept a diary and wrote down what he saw in England.
The successful invasion of England by the Romans did not take place until
nearly a century later, in 43 AD, headed by the Emperor Claudius I. The
Romans did not meet with much resistance on the part of the natives and
soon got possession of what is now England by driving many of the native
Celts into mountainous Scotland and Wales. The Romans failed to conquer
Scotland, they built two great walls, the Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine
Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent the Picts in Scotland
from invading England.
3.2 Influences of Roman Invasion
The 3d and 4th centuries witnessed the decline of the Roman Empire. In
410 Rome abandoned Britain.
1. Roman urban civilization, baths and amphitheaters, as well Hadrian’s
Wall. People who spoke Latin and wore togas. Numerous villas——vast
estates worked by slaves and featuring sumptuous noble dwellings—were
also established. Beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.
2. A network of roads, still in use for 1400 years;
3. A number of towns. They introduced a system of organized government
and built a network of towns, mostly walled. These town used names ending
with “ster”, “cester”, or “shire” -- Leicester, Worcester and
Yorkshire—deriving from castra, the Latin word for camp; the Roman
capital was London.
4. Christianity; the Romans brought the new religion, Christianity, to
Britain. This came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders
and soldiers, before the first Christian Emperor, Constantine, we
proclaimed in 306 AD.
5. Water and sewage systems.

1.1 Anglo-Saxon
Soon after the Romans left, a band of new invaders landed in the southern
part of England, in what is now the country of Kent. They were known in
history as the Jutes. Other Germanic tribes came trooping after them. This
continued for many years. The Saxons came from northern Germany and
established their kingdoms in Essex (East Saxow), Succes (South Saxon)
and Wessex (West Saxon). In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles,
also from northern Germans, came and settled in the east part of England.
After the newcomers had taken possession of all the land now known as
England, the movement, know in history as the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, was
complete. But we must bear in mind that theses Germanic tribes never
obtained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The
inhabitants of these countries were still Celts.
The England was divided into seven principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy
in English history: Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex
and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.

The influence of Anglo-Saxon
?The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. They divided
the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs,
responsible for administering law.
?They devised the narrow- strip, three-field farming system which
continued to the 18th century. In this system, the arable land around a
village was divided into three hedgeless (open) big fields. These fields
were divided into narrow strips which were shared out among the villagers.
Good land was thus fairly distributed. One great field was left “fallow”
each year so that its soil could recover its richness after two years’
cultivation.
?They set up the basis of the English agrarian civilization and
subsistence farming. There were wastelands, known as commons, which were
used by villagers to graze livestock and get firewood. This system was
the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming.
It helped to shape the English community life and the Anglo-Saxon concept
of equality.
?They created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise
the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

2. Viking Invasion (800–1066)
In the 8th century, the Vikings from the
Scandinavian countries of northern Europe, Norway and Denmark, began to
attack the English coast. In the process of resisting the Vikings, the
7 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England gradually became united under Alfred
the Great.
Alfred was a king of Wessex. He was not only an able warrior but also a

dedicated scholar and a wise ruler. He defeated the Danes and reached a
friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north
and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes
into Christians.
He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British
navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He
translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and
formulated a legal system.
After the death of Alfred, his successors were not as capable as he
had been. Taking advantage of the situation, more Dane came and set about
taking possession of the entire country. The Anglo-Saxon king didn’t care
for fighting, but he dreamed of buying off the Danes. As a result, more
invaders came. In 1016, the Witan chose Canute, the Danish leader, as king
of England. Canute, who made England part of a Scandinavian empire which
included Norway as well as Denmark.
3. Norman Conquest
3.1 Norman Conquest: Cause
After the death of Canute’s son, the crown was passed to Edward the
Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon king.
When Edward was on his death-bed, several men laid claim to the English
throne, the king of Norway, the Duke of Normandy (Edward’s cousin), and
Harold Godwinson( a brother of Edward’s wife).
William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed the Edward had promised the crown
to him before his death. He became very angry when he heard that Harold
had taken the crown. Harold knew that William would come to measure swords
with him. he was prepared to fight, placing an army on the southern coast
of England to watch for William’s coming. Several months passed by and
William failed to appear. He was abiding his time. When the harvest time
in England came, many of Harold’s soliders went back home to gather in
the crops. The coast was thus left undefended.
William seized the chance and landed his army in Southeastern England in
Sep. 1066. Harold, who had been fighting in the north, hurried back with
the exhausted troops. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October.
It was a close battle at first, but in the final hours William’s
superiority in cavalry and archers proved decisive. Harold was killed,
along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine, and the English army
fled.
William became known as William the Conqueror, the first Anglo-Norman king
of England.
3.2 Control of England
After Willam became the king, he took a few measures to control England
Soldiers rewarded: The Normans received from William lands and titles
in return for their service in the invasion.
All land was the king’s: William claimed ultimate possession of

virtually all the land in England and asserted the right to dispose of
it as he saw fit.
Land confiscation: William confiscated the lands of all English lords
who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed most of them to his
Norman supporters.
These initial confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more
confiscations, in a cycle that continued virtually unbroken for five years
after the Battle of Hastings.
Fort and castle building: To put down and prevent further rebellions,
the Normans constructed a variety of forts and castles on an unprecedented
scale.
Heir designation: If an English landholder died without issue, the
King could designate the heir, and often chose a successor from Normandy.
Inheritance control: William and his barons also exercised tighter
control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often
forcing marriages to Normans.
No English in upper society: The Normans displaced the native
aristocracy and took control of the upper ranks of society. By 1086, French
names predominated even at the lower levels of the aristocracy.
3.3 The significance of Norman Conquest
The Norman Conquest was a pivotal举足轻重event in English history
for several reasons:
1) This conquest linked England more closely with continental Europe
through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening
Scandinavian influence.
2) It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and
engendered a sophisticated governmental system.
3) The conquest changed the English language and culture and set the
stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently until
the 20th century.
4. Henry II’s Reforms
William died in Normandy in 1087. he left Normandy to his eldest son named
Robert, and England to his second son named William Rufus, and all his
money to his third son named Henry. William Rufus became known as William
II, but he was killed brother succeeded him and became know as Henry I.
Henry I died in 1135, leaving no male heir. His daughter, called Matilda,
had married Geoffrey Plantagenet. Matilda’s son, named Henry, became the
king,know as Henry II and founder of the Plantagenet Dynasty.
Henry II was the first king of the House of Plantagenet. By his marriage
to a French princess he acquired the western half of France. To help him
rule the large kingdom, the new king strengthened the Great Council, and
carried out a series of reforms.
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy巩固君主制. He
forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England； recalled grants of Royal

lands made by his previous king Stephen； demolished many castles built
in Stephen‘s time； strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs
and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial
work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed
justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent
justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign， a common law
was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons.
He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial
system. Besides， he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal
offenses from the Bishops court to the Kings court.

5. King John and the Greater Charter
5.1 King John succeeded his nephew Richard I in 1199.
Ten years after Henry II’s death, his third and youngest son succeeded
his second son Richard, became the king and he was said to be the worst
of English kings. He was defeated in a war with France and lost Normandy
in 1204.
He demanded more feudal taxes and army service to revenge himself on
France. The lords became angry, marched to London and forced him to sign
a long document on June 17th, 1215. The document is known as the Great
Charter.
King John torn up the Great Charter with the help of Pope.
War broke out and finally John lost the war and died in 1216.
5.2 The Great Charter had three sets of provisions:
The Great Charter, or the Magna Carta, is a most important document in
English history. It is a s important to the English people as the
Declaration of Independence to the Americans. It has been regarded as “the
corner stone” of English history. It consists of 63 clauses and some of
the most important provisions are as follows:
The king must promise to observe the rights of his vassals (barons) and
the vassals in turn must observe the rights of their men.
The merchant is not to be deprived of his goods for small offenses, nor
the farmers of his wagon and implements. No tax should be levied in the
kingdom without the consent of the Great Council.
No free man shall be imprisoned or banished or punished in any way, unless
convicted by a jury of his fellow citizens.
The king should permit merchants to move about freely and observe the
privileges of the various towns.

5.3 Significances of the Great Charter
The Great Charter was the first step of constitutional experiment and rule
of law. It tried to establish a legal relation between the king and his

barons by defining their respective rights and obligations
The Great Charter paved the way for the new- born bourgeoisie to get
political power because it granted more power to the Great Council, which
was the embryonic form of the English Parliament.
The chapter protected the rights of the merchant class. This facilitated
the development of commerce and handicraft.
The Great Charter laid down the basic rules for the English and American
legal system. It raised the problem of protecting life, property, and
preventing possible abuse of power of the government.
6. Birth of Parliament
6.1 Henry III's Reign
Henry III (reign 1216-1272) was crowned at the age of 9.
He hoped that he could defeat the lords and their Charter with the
help of the Pope: (advisers, church post)
Rebellion broke out with Simon V de Montfort (6th Earl of Leicester)
as the leader.
The lords forced the king to dismiss his foreign advisers and to accept
their own council of advisers, instead.
Montfort’s new council took control of the treasury and all state
officials, and then settled down to work their reforms.
Simon called a parliament in 1265 after a battle in which Henry III
was defeated and taken prisoner.
In addition to the older group, there were two knights from each shire
and two citizens from each town. It was known as the “All Estates
Parliament (各级议会).”
6.2 Edward I's Reign
Edward I succeeded his father, Henry III, in 1272. He conquered Wales
and engaged in a long war with Scotland, but he was in constant need of
money.
In 1295, he summoned the “All Estates Parliament”—more than 400
members in all. As that Parliament was followed as a model, it became known
in history as the “Model Parliament (模范议会).”
6.3 Edward II's Reign
Edward II succeeded his father in 1307. He was a weak and lazy king.
He left the work of government to his household favorites. A party of lords
was formed against him.
Parliament made a plan to demand the public appointment of all state
officials. Parliament forced Edward II to hand over the crown to his son
in 1327.
1.2 Hundred Years’ War (1337 to 1453)
The Cause
The English kings’ claims to the French throne.
The Phases
The war was a series of conflicts and is commonly divided into three

or four phases:
1) the Edwardian War (1337–1360),
2) the Caroline War (1369–1389),
3) the Lancastrian War (1415–1429), and
4) the slow decline of English fortunes after the appearance of Joan
of Arc (1412–1431).
It finally ended in the expulsion of the English from France.
In the early phrase, the English were on the offensive and won great
victories. Henry V was once recognized as heir to the French throne, and
his son was acknowledged king of France and England in 1422.
In the last phase, with emergence of Joan of Arc, the French began
to act on the offensive.
The Results
By the time the war was concluded, the English had lost all the
territories they had gained during the war. England underwent important
political, economic and social changes.
Politically:
While the king was in constant need of money for the war, Parliament
was frequently summoned to approve taxes and to issue laws. From 1343
onward, Parliament was divided into two chambers: the House of Lords, a
body of leading clergymen and leading vassals, and the House of Commons,
a body of small nobility (knights). The commoners were inferior
politically because they were inferior economically to the great feudal
landowners.
Economically:
The English failure to conquer Flanders led the government to
encourage the home woolen industry. England soon became more a
manufacturer of cloth and less a mere producer of raw wool.
Socially:
The war speeded up the breakdown of feudal society. The vast
expenditure of war put the money class, the new bourgeoisie, in a more
important position in Britain.

Joan of Arc: (Download) Hundred Years’ War (Download)
1.2 The Black Death
The Black Death cut a path—both literal and figurative—through the
middle of the 14th Century. It was caused by the bubonic (腹股沟腺炎的)
plague. It was Spread by rats, whose fleas carried the plague bacilli (杆
状菌) from the East along trade routes, and penetrated almost all of Europe,
killing at least one out of every three people in Europe.

The Black Death reached England in the summer of 1348, and it was the
severest of many plagues in the middle ages, killing about 40% of the
British population (3.5 million).

Direct consequences:
The agricultural labors in villages and under-masters (伙计) and
journeymen (帮工,计日工) in cities went on strike for better wages. The
villains (无产者) whose labor was not free struggled for full freedom.
Results:
1) Higher wages and greater freedom for the wage laborers
2) Equal advantages for the villains.
3) Hastened the breakdown of the manorial system封地系统.
Order 1349 of Edward III and “Statutes of Laborers”
In order to solve the labour shortage, Edward III issued an order in
1349. It required all grown-up men and women below sixty, having no land
or other means of living, to work for landlords and proprietors at the
rate before the plague.
And the Parliament also issued two statues in 1351 and 1361,
collectively known as “Statutes of Laborers”. It introduced cruel
punishments for those who refused to work. A general hatred was aroused
against the ministers, lawyers and landlords.

Jews: The Scapegoats
Jews, supposed to carry the plague bacilli to England, were persecuted.
Burning of Jews during the Black Death epidemic, 1349.
1.3 Wat Tyler’s Uprising
Causes:
Worsening of peasants’ life: a new poll tax during the reign of Richard
II
John Ball’s preaching
John Ball, a radical clergyman, traveled through southeast England and
voiced the bitterness of the peasants and their strong hatred of the nobles.
Later, he was taken prisoner.
(Natural disasters and social problems finally led to the peasant uprising.
In 1381 the government imposed a flat rate poll tax of one shilling a head
on the peasants to fund the Hundred Years’ war. This directly caused the
peasant uprising. )
Process:
Peasants rebelled in the summer of 1381. They were determined to
abolish serfdom. Wat Tyler was the most important military leader. The
peasants released John Ball from the county jail and drove away or killed
the king’s tax collectors. They attacked the nobles’ manor houses and
monasteries, and even killed the nobles.
The peasants soon came to London in June, 1381. Richard II, aged 14,
decided t play a trick on them. On June 14, the king met the rebels outside
London to hear their complaints and receive their petition. held a peace
talk with the peasants. The peasants demanded 1) freedom from villainage,
2) the reform of the church by a re-organization that would leave only

one bishop in England, and 3) the establishments of a
all-are-equal-except-the- King society.
The King 1) promised to grant their demands and 2) issued a pardon
to everyone who went home in peace;
Half of the peasants went home.
However during the next talk, the king broken his promise,
treacherously killed Wat Tyler, put hundreds of rebels to death,
suppressing the uprising.

Death of Tyler (lego video) (download)
Significance:
The peasants’ uprising gave a heavy blow to the nobles with the king
as their head and shook the very foundation of the feudal society in
Britain.

1.4 Wars of the Roses (1455~1485)
England was ruled by the House of Lancaster from 1399 to 1461.
The feudal nobility split into two groups: the Lancastrians and the
Yorkists.
They were contending for power, wealth and ultimately for the
possession of the Crown. England had become a feudal anarchy by the middle
of the 15th century.
England was thrown into another series of civil wars which were fought
intermittently between the Lancastrians who wore a red rose and the
Yorkists who wore a white rose, from 1455 to 1485.
The Lancastrians: the nobles of the Scottish and Welsh Borders
The Yorkists: the progressive South, from East Anglia and London
The war went on for 30 years. Open battles were few, but murders and
revenges were common.
From 1461 the Yorkists reigned, but the wars were not concluded until
1485.
In nature the wars were a struggle between the commercial-minded
gentry and the backward feudal landowners. The old feudal nobility was
greatly weakened.
When Henry Tudor, founder of a new monarchy, came to the throne in
1485, the old feudal nobility had been so weakened that it was no longer
an important factor in the state.
The common people were little affected and so was the economic life
of the time.

Process of Wars of the Roses (download) and the the Wars In Shakespeare’s
Work (download)
1.5 The Decline of Feudalism
All these events, Hundred Years’ War (1337~1453), Black death,

WatTyler’s Uprising (1381), Wars of the Roses (1455~1485), shook the very
foundation of the feudal society and marked the disintegration and decline
of feudalism in Britain.

2. The Tudor Monarchy
After the ending of the Wars of the Roses, the House of Tudor ascended
the throne in the person of King Henry VII. The Tudor Monarchy was known
as the new monarchy because it was different from the previous monarchies.
A lot of nobles were killed during the Wars of the Roses and many big feudal
households were destroyed as a result, the position of the Tudor Monarchy
was greatly strengthened. The change in the balance of strength, to the
advantage of the king and the bourgeoisie, paved the way for the
establishment of powerful central government. The feudal separation,
characteristic of feudalism, was no longer possible. To protect the
interest of the commercial and landed middle classes (merchants and free
farmers), on which the Tudor monarchs themselves relied for their power
and popularity, the monarchy emphasized the development of trade. To
secure export markets, the monarchy encouraged the foreign expansion. It
was also during the Tudor Monarchy the America was discovered and the
Renaissance spread into England. All this helped to prepare the conditions
for the establishment of the capitalist mode of production in England.
Meanwhile, large amounts of wealth needed for capitalist development were
accumulated. The day for the English bourgeoisie to take over political
power was not far off. The Tudor Monarchy thus served as the transitional
stage from feudalism to capitalism in English history.

2.1 Henry VII
Henry VII was the first monarch of the Tudor Monarch. He gave England very
firm rule by forbidding the nobles to keep excessive power. He made it
clear to all foreign powers that it was dangerous for those who would hope
to make trouble for England. By careful diplomacy, Henry VII gave England
peace at home and abroad. This enabled him to build up England’s navy
and foreign trade. England’s increased international prestige was
reflected in the eagerness of other European monarchs of that time. Other
European monarchs were still keen to make nation states where the monarch
had “absolute power”. in other words, they still had total power and
they did not discuss their policies with any consultative body. This was
not possible for Henry VII because Parliament in England was already a
fairly important institution which the king had to consult if the king
wanted to get money.

2.2 Henry VIII and reform of the Church
He is usually remembered for his frivolous image. He had six wives one
after another. He divorce twice and executed two of his wives for alleged

adultery. He strengthened control over remote border areas and local
government. He did not allow aristocrats to control local government but
placed it in the hands of the gentry (smaller landowners), who were
appointed Justices of the Peace with full power over law and
administration in rural areas. They were directly responsible to the king.
In foreign affairs Henry VIII, aided by Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop and Lord
Chancellor, tried to seek an active role for England in Europe. He tried
to be on friendly terms with the two superpowers of the day – France and
Spain.
Henry VIII’s greatest contribution was that he started the reform of the
Church in England. The king believed it was time to carry out the reform
because English people under the influence of the ideas preached by Martin
Luther, desired the reform of the Church. By then, England had also become
a centralized nation state. Common national sense was developing and many
people were against the Pope’s interference in England’s internal
affairs. Supporters of the Lollards believed it was wrong for the Church
to control so much land and wealth. The king also looked covetously at
the wealth of the clergy and he concluded that reform of the church was
in the interest of Monarchy, viewed both politically and in terms of
poverty.
The immediate cause was Henry VIII’s divorce case with involved political
need. The king had married Catherine, a Spanish princess and wife of his
late elder brother, of maintaining alliance with Spain, which was a major
power in Europe, Henry VIII wanted to break the tie with Spain and improve
relations with France. Catherine had to be taken out of the way. And to
his anxiety, Catherine had failed to produce a male heir for him. The
anxiety was increased by his love for Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII applied toe
Pope Clement VII for a permission to divorce Catherine so that he could
marry Anna Boleyn. But the Pope refused to annul his marriage for fear
of offending the Spanish king, Catherine’s nephew. The angry king decided
to take action by himself.
Henry’s reform was to cut England religious connection with the Pope,
and to make this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He asked
Parliament to cut off the Pope’s revenue from England. The Act of
Succession of 1534 barred Catholics from succession to the English throne.
The act of supremacy至尊法案 passed in 1535 said supremacy was with the
king instead of the Pope. As a result, Henry VIII took the title
Supreme Head of the Church of England.
He didn’t want to alter theology in any way. What he did was only to get
rid of Papal interference in England’s internal affairs. But his attack
on the Pope’s power encouraged many people to criticize the Catholic
Church. As a result, a lot f people wanted to move away from Catholicism
and shift towards Protestant ideology.

2.3 Queen Mary
Henry VIII was followed by his son Edward VI who carried out drastic
religious change. He switch to Protestant theology and his drastic reform
has been called “The Reformation” in English history
After the death of Edward VI in 1553, his elder sister Mary Tudor became
the QUEEN. Mary, like her mother Catherine, was a devout Catholic. She
married Philip II of Spain and tried to restore Roman Catholicism in
England. As a result, many people were persecuted for their insistence
in Protestant views. About 300 Protestants were burnt as heretics and Mary
became known as “Bloody Mary”.

2.4 Elizabeth I
She was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anna Boleyn.
To parliament: she was able to work with Parliament, but she regarded the
demand of Parliament as violations of her prerogative.
To religion: a compromise of views. She repudiated the papal supremacy
over religious affairs by declaring herself “defender of the faith” in
England. She broke religious ties with Rome and restored the independence
of the Church of England, but she kept to Catholic doctrines and practices.
She imposed the Common Prayer Book, thee English selection of the Bible,
on all churches in England, but at the same time she tolerated secret
dissenters who were allowed to use prayer books of their own choice at
home. Her moderate religious policy was unacceptable to both the extreme
Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
To outside: she successfully played off against each other the two great
Catholic powers, France and Spain. She prevented England from getting
involved in major European conflicts. She avoided open hostility with
Spain, but she secretly encourage English seadogs to raid Spanish colonies
and plunder the Spanish ships that were retuning back home to Spain she
granted charters to English merchants for the establishment of charter
companies, such as the East India Company, to knock open foreign markets
which in turn promoted Britain’s domestic development of industry.
The Spanish king Philip finally realized Elizabeth I was his most
dangerous rival and dispatched a fleet of 130 vessels England. The Armada
sailed up the English Channel and a large naval battle broke out. The
English battleships threw their enemies into panic with fire ship. The
badly battered Armada fled northward in confusion. Caught in a storm, many
of the Spanish warships perished and only half f them struggled back home
to Spain, never to invade England again.
The destruction of the Spanish Armada weakened one of the England’s major
rivals. The victory not only established the position of England as a major
sea power but also pave the way for its foreign expansion as a colonizing
nation. Elizabeth was regarded as the foundation-layer of the British
Empire which was going to take shape soon.

1. Industrial Revolution
1.1 Introduction
Time: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries
Fields of change: Agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation
Profound effect on: Socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain
Spreading: Starting from Britain and spreading throughout Europe and
North America and eventually the world
Processes: In the later part of the 18th century the manual
labour-based economy of the Kingdom of Great Britain began to be replaced
by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery.
It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the
development of iron- making techniques and the increased use of refined
coal.
Trade: Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals,
improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled
primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing)
underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.
Heavy industry: The development of all-metal machine tools in the
first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more
production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
The Second Industrial Revolution followed the First Industrial Revolution
around 1850:
Means of Transport: The development of steam- powered ships, railways;
Power: Internal combustion engine and electrical power generation;
Nature: A process of industrialisation.
Significances:
The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point
in human social history, comparable to the invention of farming or the
rise of the first city- states.
Every aspect of daily life and human society was eventually influenced
in some way.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and
the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The Industrial Revolution
began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.
Black Death : was the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease
spread by rat fleas . It spread through Europe in the 14th century and
swept through England in the summer of 1348 . It reduced England's
population from four million to two million by the end of 14th century.

1. Industrial Revolution
1.1 Introduction
Time: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries
Fields of change: Agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation

Profound effect on: Socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain
Spreading: Starting from Britain and spreading throughout Europe and
North America and eventually the world
Processes: In the later part of the 18th century the manual
labour-based economy of the Kingdom of Great Britain began to be replaced
by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery.
It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the
development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined
coal.
Trade: Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals,
improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled
primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing)
underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.
Heavy industry: The development of all-metal machine tools in the
first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more
production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
The Second Industrial Revolution followed the First Industrial Revolution
around 1850:
Means of Transport: The development of steam-powered ships, railways;
Power: Internal combustion engine and electrical power generation;
Nature: A process of industrialisation.
Significances:
The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point
in human social history, comparable to the invention of farming or the
rise of the first city-states.
Every aspect of daily life and human society was eventually influenced
in some way.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and
the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The Industrial Revolution
began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.


Climate and geography
? A maritime type of climate: In Britain the weather is rainy,
changeable and unpredictable. In fact it has a favorable maritime climate.
? It rarely rises above 32℃ in summer or falls below –10℃ in winter.
Winters are mild, not too cold and summers are cool, not too hot.
? The Seven River rises in northeast Wales and flows through central
England to the Bristol Channel.
? It is 355 Kilometers long and is the longest river in Britain.

British Education
British children are required by law to have an education until they are
16 years old. Education is compulsory, but school is not, children are

not required to attend school. They could be educated at home.1996
Education Act of the UK Section 7 of the 1996 Education Act states:
parent of every child of compulsory school age shall cause him to receive
efficient full-time education suitable-(a) to his age, ability and
aptitude, and(b) to any special educational needs he may have either by
regular attendance at school or otherwise.
children from 5 to 18. About 94 per cent of pupils in England, and the
rest of the UK, receive free education from public funds, while 6 per cent
attend independent fee paying schools.
All government-run schools, state schools, follow the same National
Curriculum. The School Year. The school year is 39 weeks general,
children start school on the first day of term after they turn the
age of 11, they move on to regular high schools, known as secondary schools.
When do kids leave school? British children are required to attend school
until they are 16 years old. At the age of 16, students write an examination
called the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education). All
students are tested in mathematics, English literature, English
composition, chemistry, biology, physics, history or the Classics, one
modern language, and one other subject, such as art or computer studies.
After completing the GCSE, some students leave school, others go onto
technical college, whilst others continue at high school for two more
years and take a further set of standardized exams, known as A levels,
in three or four subjects. These exams determine whether a student is
eligible for university. Education stages: Children's education in
England is normally divided into two separate stages. They begin with
primary education at the age of five and this usually lasts until they
are eleven. Then they move to secondary school, there they stay until they
reach sixteen, seventeen or eighteen years of age





配合文库中的《英美概况》使用，翻译不对的地方还请指正
一， 地理
1。地理特点
1.1东部高地
由阿巴拉契亚山脉形成的？
1。一个平均海拔800米以上的海拔？
2。最高峰： 米切尔山（1856米）：对阿巴拉契亚山脉的最高峰？
3。东：狭窄的大西洋海岸平原
1.2中原
1。阿巴拉契亚山脉之间的落基山脉和辽阔的平原？
2。排泄密西西比河及其支流？

3。通常分为两个区域：？
1）在西部大平原：在东部农业区的西部和广大无树木的大草原？
2）在东部中央低地：从五个大湖中央德州
1.3西部山区
高原和山区的国家呢？
1， 落基山脉：超过海拔3000米？
而美国大陆分裂？
2。西落基山脉： 在哥伦比亚北部高原？
在南科罗拉多高原
大峡谷，在大盆地之间？
太平洋山系统包括三个区域：在喀斯喀特山脉，山脉，内华达州和太平洋海岸山
脉？
该山脉包含惠特尼山（4421米），在美国阿拉斯加以外最高的高峰？
死亡谷在加州东部，低于海平面85米


2， 气候
美 国拥有庞大的规模和地域范围广的特点。每个气候类型是在代表国家：气候是
在大平原的100经络西部 ，在西南地区，地中海的沙漠温带大部分地区，在夏威
夷和佛罗里达州南部的热带，在阿拉斯加极地，半 干旱海岸加利福尼亚州，在大
盆地干旱？
极端天气是共同的：国家接壤的墨西哥海湾很容 易发生飓风，和世界上大多数龙
卷风在美国大陆的主要是在中西部地区，时有发生。

3。 河流
密西西比河（大河，在印度语大河）是3770公里长：第二个最长的美国河流 。
它起源进入墨西哥湾，从明尼苏达州和清空？
密苏里河4090公里长。它是最长的河 流（密西西比河最长的分支）。这是一个密
西西比河的支流，流经从杰斐逊，麦迪逊和加勒廷合流，进入 密西西比河排空。
而在密西西比 - 密苏里 - 杰弗逊组合的长度约为6262公里？ 阿肯色河（2364公里）是第二最长的密西西比河支流。俄亥俄河是密西西比河
的最大支流的水量 计算？
育空河是北美洲西北部的主要水道。在不列颠哥伦比亚省，加拿大瑞星，它运行
3 700公里长，进入白令海排空。

5大湖泊


二，美国历史
1， 在哪里做的第一个美国人和来自他们为什么迁移到美国？
图书P 4-5
2， 美国南北战争
美国南北战争（1861-1865），也 被称为国家间的战争，是在美国内战。南方奴隶
州宣布十来自美国的分裂，形成了美国南部邦联（南部邦 联）。由杰斐逊戴维斯

的带领下，他们又打了对美国联邦政府（以下简称“联 盟”），这是所有自由州
和五个边境奴隶州的支持。
2.1原因
一个奴隶主南 与日趋反奴役北共存了冲突可能。林肯并没有提出反对奴隶制
在那里已经存在的联邦法律，但他在他的1 858家划分的讲话，表示希望 “ 逮
捕了它的进一步蔓延，并把它在公众心目中应休息，相信它是在 最终灭绝“课程。
对在关于奴隶制到新创建的领土扩张主要集中在19世纪50年代的政治斗争了。该组织的所有领土有可能成为自由的土壤状态，增加运动走向分裂国家的南部。
南北双方认为，如果奴隶制不能扩大它会枯萎，死亡。
一个奴隶主南与日趋反奴役北共存了冲突可能。 林肯并没有提出反对奴隶制在那
里已经存在的联邦法律，但他在他的1858家划分的讲话，表示希望“ 逮捕了它
的进一步蔓延，并把它在公众心目中应休息，相信它是在最终灭绝“课程。对在
关于奴 隶制到新创建的领土扩张主要集中在19世纪50年代的政治斗争了。该组
织的所有领土有可能成为自由 的土壤状态，增加运动走向分裂国家的南部。南北
双方认为，如果奴隶制不能扩大它会枯萎，死亡。 < br>失去联邦政府控制，反对奴隶制的力量，而从权力政府已经控制了北方的恐惧，
恐惧带来的危机南 头到19世纪50年代中后期。对奴隶制的道德分段分歧，民主
和自由劳动与奴隶种植园的经济价值的范 围和造成的辉格“认识全无”当事人
崩溃，新的出现（1848年自由土壤党，共和党在1854年，1 860年宪法联盟）。
1860年，最后剩下的国家的政党，民主党，分裂沿截面线。
2.2影响因素的过程和结果
什么很大的影响的过程，以及战争的结果是在其战略的分歧南北，地理特征，
技术，人力和资金。
2.2.1策略
由于男子浇入军队，北方和南方领导人讨论的策略，将取得胜利。
北方军队会入侵南部邦联，摧毁其发动战争的能力，并粉碎了南部人民抵抗
意志。南部邦联 可以赢得战争延长到一个地步，北人会认为太昂贵的努力在生命
和金钱来坚持。
南都在一 个看似弱小战胜一个更强大的一个电源美国革命的一个引人注目
的例子。如果朝鲜选择不安装的军事努力 ，胁迫脱离联邦的州回联盟，邦联将赢
得默认的独立性。
林肯等北方领导人，但是，并没 有让南州去不战的意图。最突出的美国在
1861年春季军事数字温菲尔德斯科特，美国军队一般总司令 。有了一个辉煌的
头脑，斯科特设想了一个长期战略，使北方的胜利。斯科特的计划寻求适用于来
自各方面的南部邦联的压力。一个海军和陆军部队合力将扫下来的密西西比河，
分裂联邦的东部和西部 各州。与此同时，联盟将建立一个海军封锁否认南部邦联
进入欧洲制造的商品。如果南方继续抵抗，即使 是在密西西比和港口关闭亏损，
斯科特设想到南部邦联心脏的大规模入侵。
2.2.2地理
地理如何有效地发挥了双方能够履行其战略的主要作用。
对南部邦联的庞大规模构成 了北方军队令人生畏的障碍。总额超过1940000
平方公里和没有道路发达的网络，南北方山水的挑 战 “ 的能力，在供应军队从
联盟基地增加距离操纵。

它也几乎不可能使北 ' S的南部港口的封锁完全有效，因为南 方的 “ 海岸线
伸展5600公里并载有近200个港口通航 河流和河口=“瓮：架构-微软COM：办公室：办公“>
阿巴拉契亚山脉也阻碍了南部邦联 之间的东部和西部地区部队迅速行动，而
北弗吉尼亚州雪兰多山谷的提供受保护的途径，通过它的同盟军 可能入侵朝鲜。
南方河流的位置，但是，赞成北。在密西西比州，田纳西，坎伯兰河和为联
盟军队的阿巴拉契亚山脉以西的进步优秀南北途径。

2.2.3技术
技 术进步有助于双方的军队战斗过的很远的距离处理。南北战争是第一次大
规模冲突特色铁路和电报。铁路 快速移动的士兵和大量的物资数十万，北有近两
倍，作为南方铁路线多英里。电报通信所允许两国政府协 调广阔的地域方面的军
事动向。
该战斗人员也参加了许多其他军事技术的最新发展优势。 最重要的是步枪步
枪通过双方的步兵最进行。该步枪步枪用的225至275米的有效范围，允许攻击< br>后卫分手很久以前他们到达的维护者的立场。
其他新技术铁定战舰，其中包括双方使用;载 人气球上战场空中侦察用于北
方为主，部署。对于所有这些武器的技术目前已在南北战争之前，但从来没 有过
的军队如此广泛的应用技术。

2.2.4人力及财务
在战争 开始，国家为民兵提供联盟和同盟军部队最。不久，大批平民被志愿
服兵役。在整个战争中，大量的部队 组成的志愿者。

当后面的战斗伤亡日益落后的义工人数，无论是北部和南部的军队将 采取政
府起草的男子。南部邦联通过了1862年4月的第一个法案草案。欧盟随后将近
一年后 。
尽管草案本身没有产生足够数量的士兵，对正在起草导致许多志愿者，并收
集了赏金， 这是支付给志愿者的威胁。一些士兵被不法足以争取，沙漠和
reenlist收集奖金超过一次。
南北战争，像所有的战争，呼吁数额巨大的资金支付部队和设备供应他们。
在战争一开始， 联邦依靠贷款，但这种资金的来源很快就消失的南方人开始受到
战争和无力购买债券的成本经济。相反， 它依赖于纸币，自由打印。南部邦联遭
受了严重的通货膨胀和债务大大整个战争。同盟的通货膨胀率约为 9200％。
欧洲联盟资助的贷款和税收来比联邦更大程度的军队，甚至诉诸所得税。北
方的人比南方的繁荣。一个国家的银行体系是由美国国会成立的美国国债，以刺
激销售。北方人有积蓄， 他们可以购买债券，并从中可以采取税收收入。

2.3过程


2.6.1东部战区（1861年至1863年）
2.6.3西部剧院（1861年至1863年）
2.6.4跨密西西比剧院（1861-1865）

3。美国在第一次世界大战
第一次世界大战时，军事冲突，从1914年8月至1918 年11月，在世界各
地，涉及的许多欧洲国家以及美国和其他国家。
第一次世界大战是欧洲历史上最暴力和破坏性的战争之一。
在这6500万谁动员男性，10多万死亡，20多万受伤。
第一次世界大战一词没有进入一般使 用，直至第二次世界冲突爆发于1939
年进行。在这一年之前，战争被称为伟大的战争或世界大战。
1.1联盟参与
战争一开始是两个欧洲国家联盟之间的冲突。
第一个联盟，作为盟国称，包括英国，法国，比利时，塞尔维亚，黑山和俄
罗斯帝国。
中央权力，反对他们，包括德国和奥匈帝国的帝国。
1.2直接原因
战争的直接原因是费迪南德大公弗朗西斯，到了奥匈帝国王位继承人暗杀，
由塞尔维亚民族主义者。 < br>冲突的根本原因，但是，他们深深扎根在上个世纪欧洲的历史，特别是在政治和
经济政策，在欧洲 盛行后，1871年，这一年，德国作为欧洲的一个主要力量出
现。

2。大萧条
10月24日，1929年，美国股市崩溃。利润的纸被消灭了数十亿美元在几个
小时内。 这导致了长期经济衰退。
但是，战后工业蓬勃发展，繁荣很快消失。在美国大萧条，最严重的和最长的 现
代工业世界历史上经济崩溃，开始从1929年底至1940年初。
2.1原因
而抑郁症是由一种在经济严重弱点。

这是一个普遍的误解认为，1929年10月股市暴 跌是大萧条的原因。这两个事件
是密切相关，但两者都是在现代经济中的深层问题，通过了建立“繁荣的 十年”
的20世纪20年代的结果。
由于是战后时期的典型，在咆哮的二十年代美国人转 身向内，远离国际问题
和社会关注，走向更大的个人主义。
20世纪20年代的以自我为 中心的态度似乎以适应经济的需要，很好。现代
工业有能力生产大量的消费品，但创造了一个根本的问题 ：只有在能够继续繁荣
的需求作出迅速成长为供应。因此，人们被说服放弃作为储蓄，推迟享乐和采购，
以及只购买他们所需要的这种传统观念。广告的方法被用来说服人们购买这种相
对较新的汽车和 收音机等全新的产品和家用电器的。由此产生的大众消费保持了
经济经过20世纪20年代最去。
但是有一个基本的经济问题：收入是分布很不均匀，以及部分前往富有的美
国人越积越多， 在这个十年中进行的。这主要是因为两个因素：虽然企业在20
世纪20年代发现的生产力显着增长，职 工得到了在此生产的财富相对较小的份
额。1923年和1929年之间，制造业每人每小时产量增长了 32％，但工人的工资
只增长了8％。企业利润由65％的投篮在同一时期。

由于这些趋势，在1929年最高的0.1％的美国家庭有一个总收入等于42％< br>的底部。这意味着，谁愿意购买新产品的许多人没有足够的钱这样做。为了解决
这个困难，20世 纪20年代产生的另一个创新的“信用”，为消费者债务吸引力
的名称。人们可以“立即购买，后付款。 ”
国际问题也削弱了经济。第一次世界大战后，美国成为世界 “ 首席债权人
作为欧洲 国家挣扎着支付战争债务和赔款。许多美国银行家们没有准备好为这个
新角色。他们借给严重和不明智到 欧洲，特别是德国，借款人谁也难以偿还贷款，
特别是如果发生了严重的经济衰退。这些巨额债务使国际 银行结构由20年代末
非常不稳定。
此外，美国保持对从其他国家进口产品征收高额关税 ，在同一时间，这是使
外国贷款和试图出口产品。这种组合无法持续：如果其他国家不能出售在美国的< br>商品，他们无法作出足够的钱购买美国产品或偿还美国的贷款。
最富有的美国人的收入增加 助长了股市的快速增长，特别是1927年和1929
年之间。不久的股票价格分别上涨远远超出了他们 所代表的公司的股票。人们愿
意支付高价，因为他们认为股票价格将继续上涨，他们可能很快卖出获利的 股票。
1928年，道琼斯工业平均指数，指数追踪的重点工业企业的股票价格，增
值一 倍，在不到两年。但股市的繁荣不可能持续。20世纪20年代后期的大牛市
是一个投机“泡沫”计划的 典型例子。在1929年的信心，价格将保持上升下降
动摇，然后失败。
十月下旬开始的 市场暴跌，投资者开始抛售股票。10月29日为黑色星期二，
是已知的最糟糕的一天的恐慌，股市损失 100亿至15美元的价值亿美元。到11
月中旬几乎是前两年的收益都已经被消灭了，用30元亿元的 损失。
股市崩溃宣布大萧条的开始。

2.3罗斯福新政
最初政府应对大萧条是无效的，因为胡佛总统坚持认为，经济是健全和繁荣
会很快恢复。
但企业主认为没有理由增加产量的同时未售出的货物堵塞他们的货架上。到
1932年的投资已下降到不 足5％的，其1929年的水平。截止到1932年的大选年，
抑郁症取得了胡佛如此不受欢迎的是，民 主党总统候选人富兰克林德拉诺罗斯福
的选举是所有，但保证。
不久后，他在1933年就职，迅速解除了与罗斯福新政和前所未有的快速行动的
民族的精神。
新政产生了各种各样的方案，以减少失业，协助企业和农业，规范银行和股
票市场，并为有 需要的老人和残疾人的安全性。早期新政方案的基本思想是，以
降低商品的供应，目前，消费低迷的水平 。政府设法提高农民不支付剩余作物种
植，并为许多行业守则，规范竞争，同时保障工人最低工资和最高 工时农产品价
格。新政还试图增加需求，注入经济通过公共工程计划和救助措施的大量资金。
公共工程项目不仅提供就业机会，但建造的学校，水坝和道路。新政使人们
生存的抑郁症。失业率降低， 但仍通过20世纪30年代高。农民收入增长从1.9
元到19320亿低42亿美元1940年。对抑 郁症的需求导致美国研究所社会保障方
案，并接受工会，已采取在许多欧洲国家几十年前的措施。
3.2.1美国和日本的冲突
在最后的结果，然而，美国在这个问题没有什么选择。当法国已经下降到德国，

日本已开始进入法属印度支那中国，已被法国的橡胶来源，被认为是在石油资源
丰富。美国政 府没有希望看到在这些重要资源的占有自己的股票日本等威胁要放
在这些商品禁运。日本回应在一个意想 不到的方式。上周日，1941年12月7日，
日本海军飞机袭击了珍珠港的美国太平洋舰队在夏威夷群 岛的锚。珍珠港事件带
入战争12月8日美国。德国和意大利宣布美国十二月战争

国会
美国
代表大会是在美利坚合众国两院，参议院和众议院组成，联邦政府两 院制立法机
构。两位参议员和代表都选择了通过直接选举。
按照美国宪法规定，对众议院 的435名议员代表每一个区，供应，任期两年。
众议院议席按人口分摊的状态。在100名参议员担任 交错六年任期。每个州有两
名参议员，无论人口。每隔两年，大约参议院三分之一当选。



制衡：
政府分为三个部门，立法，行政，司法，每个人都有一部分 权力，但并非所有的
权力。而每一个政府部门可以检查，或块，其他部门的行动。这三个分支从而平衡。这个所谓的“制衡”。


什么是美国的通识教育？
见书

英

2.1伊比利亚
1）他们在英伦三岛的最早的定居者。

2.2凯尔特人
1）从公元前700年凯尔特人排在几个连续波从上莱茵地区，并开始居住在英伦
三岛。
2）金发凯尔特人强加于被征服的伊比利亚部落本身在整个英国和爱尔兰作为一
个贵族。
3）这些人发现，在北部和西部山区避难。
4）至少有两个凯尔特人入侵大浪可以区分：首先 是盖尔人或Goidels，仍然在
爱尔兰和苏格兰发现，走过来只要早在公元前600;其次是Cym ric和Brythons，
仍然在威尔士发现，先于300以上BC
3。罗马英国
3.1罗马入侵
罗马指的是英国大不列颠岛那些由公元43和410之间的罗马帝国控制的部分。
罗马人提到他们的省为大不列颠。
此前，罗马人入侵，铁器时代，英国已与欧洲大陆的文化和经济联系，但侵略者

引入农业，城市化，工业和建筑的新发展，留下遗产，今天仍然是明显的。
据认为，凯尔特人在什么现在是法国古代人有关。他们给的斗争，抵制法国
罗马入侵一些帮助。因此，罗 马军队，由朱利叶斯恺撒指挥，在55 BC入侵英格
兰。他降落在肯特数千罗马军队，但会议性和恶劣 天气，罗马撤出后不久。在接
下来的一年，凯撒和罗马人去横渡英吉利海峡，并在第二次入侵英国。凯撒 和他
的士兵没有留在英国长才退出了。入侵标志着英文记载的历史开始，因为凯撒大
帝保持了日 记，记下了他在英国看到的。
英国的罗马人成功入侵没有发生直到近一个世纪以来发生后，在公元43 ，由皇
帝克劳狄乌斯一为首的罗马人没有用太多的阻力满足了当地人的一部分，很快就
什么是占 有现在英格兰驾驶到苏格兰和威尔士山区的原生凯尔特人许多。罗马人
征服苏格兰失败，他们建立了两个 伟大的墙，哈德良长城和安东尼墙，沿着英格
兰北部边界，以防止入侵英格兰，苏格兰的皮克特人。
3.2罗马入侵的影响
3D和第四世纪见证了罗马帝国的衰亡。在410罗马放弃英国。 < br>1。罗马城市文明，浴缸和amphitheaters，以及哈德良长城。人们谁讲拉丁语
和穿 togas。许多别墅 - 工作的奴隶，并设有豪华的高尚住宅广大屋，也建立
起来。除了这些，农村仍然是凯尔特人。
2。的道路网络，仍然在1400年使用;
3。一个城镇的数量。他们推出了一系列有组织的 政府体系，建立了城镇网络，
主要是围墙。这些城市使用的名称与“STER”，“cester”或“ 郡”的结局 - 莱
斯特，伍斯特和castra，为营拉丁词约克郡派生;罗马首都是伦敦。
4。基督教，罗马人带来了新的宗教，基督教，英国。在此之前在由可能带来的
交易员和士兵之前，第 一个基督教皇帝君士坦丁的，间接的手段，首先，我们在
公元306宣布。
5。供水和污水处理系统。
1.1盎格鲁撒克逊
罗马人离开后不久，一个新的侵略 者带降落在英格兰南部，在现在的肯特国家。
他们被称为历史上的朱特人。其他日耳曼部落是继他们tr ooping。这种情况持
续了很多年。撒克逊人来自德国北部，建立在埃塞克斯（东Saxow），演 替（南
撒克逊人）和威塞克斯（西撒克逊人），他们的王国。在6世纪下半叶，德国人
也从北方 的角度，来了，在英格兰东部定居。之后，新人接管了所有现在英国，
运动称为土地，在历史上知道的盎 格鲁 - 撒克逊征服，是完整的。但我们必须
牢记，论文日耳曼部落从来没有取得我们现在所谓的苏格 兰，威尔士和爱尔兰拥
有。这些国家的居民仍然凯尔特人。
英格兰被分为七个主要王国在英国 历史Heptarchy已知：诺森比亚，麦西亚，肯
特，东英吉利，埃塞克斯，苏塞克斯和威塞克斯是 英国南部的主要政体。

在盎格鲁 - 撒克逊的影响
？的盎格鲁 - 撒克逊 人奠定了英语国家的基础。他们分为shires国家，郡与郡
法院和里夫斯，或警长，负责管理的法律 责任。
？他们设计的窄条形，三场养殖系统，持续到18世纪。在这个系统中，周围的
村庄耕 地分为三个hedgeless（开放）大领域。这些领域分为其中村民分担了狭
长。良好的土地就这样 公平的分配。一个伟大的领域是左“休耕”每年，使其能
够恢复土壤经过两年的培养其丰富性。

？他们成立了英国农业文明和自给农业的基础。有荒地，作为著名风景，这是 由
村民用于放牧牲畜和获得木柴。该系统是英国农业文明和自给农业的基础。它有
助于塑造英语 社区生活和平等盎格鲁 - 撒克逊的概念。
？他们创造了Witan（议会或会议的智者）告知国王，英国枢密院的基础仍然存
在，今天。

2。维京入侵（800-1066）
在8世纪，维京人从
北欧， 挪威和丹麦，斯堪的纳维亚国家开始攻击英国海岸。在抵御海盗的过程中，
7盎格鲁撒克逊英格兰王国逐 渐成为团结在阿尔弗雷德大帝。
阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯国王。他不仅是一位能干的战士更是一种专门的 学者，一
个明智的统治者。他击败了丹麦人并达成了879与他们进行了友好协议。丹麦人
获得 了北部和东部的控制，而他统治的休息。他还转换成一些领导丹麦人的基督
徒。
他创立了一个 强大的舰队，并作为“英国海军之父”之称。他重组了萨克森军队，
使其更有效率。他翻译成英语拉丁语 的书。他还建立了学校，并制定了法律制度。
阿尔弗雷德去世后，他的继任者没有能力，因为 他一直。以优势的情况下，
更多的丹麦人来了，大约到整个国家拥有集。盎格鲁撒克逊国王没人理的战斗 ，
但他收买了丹麦人的梦想。因此，更多的侵略者来了。在1016年，该Witan选
择了作 为英国国王克努特，丹麦领导人。克努特，谁取得英国的帝国，其中包括
北欧挪威以及丹麦的一部分。
3。诺曼征服
3.1诺曼征服：原因
后克努特的儿子死亡，冠传递给爱德华忏悔，最后盎格鲁撒克逊国王。
当爱德华对他的死亡床 ，几名男子声称奠定了英国王位，挪威国王，诺曼底公爵
（爱德华的表兄弟）和哈罗德Godwinso n（一爱德华的妻子的弟弟）。
威廉，诺曼底公爵，声称爱德华生前曾答应给他冠。他非常生气，当他 听说哈罗
德采取了桂冠。哈罗德知道威廉会来衡量与他交锋。他准备打，放置在英格兰南
部海岸 的军队提防威廉的未来。几个月通过和威廉没有出现。他遵守他的时间。
当英格兰收获时间来了，哈罗德 的许多士兵回家聚集在作物。因此左海岸不设
防。
威廉抓住机会，降落在英国东南部他的军队 在1066年9月。哈罗德，谁已在北
部的战斗，用完后赶回部队。他们战斗在黑斯廷斯战役10月14 日。这是在第一
次近身战，但在最后几个小时威廉的骑兵和弓箭手的优势证明是决定性的。哈罗
德死亡，与他的兄弟伯爵Gyrth和伯爵Leofwine，和英国军队逃走。
威廉成为威廉征服者，第一盎格鲁 - 诺曼国王的英格兰著名。
3.2控制英格兰
Willam后成为国王，他采取了几项措施，以控制英国
战士回报：从威廉的诺曼人的土地和头衔获得他们在入侵的服务回报。
所有土地被王 “ 年代：威廉声称几乎所有的土地的最终拥有在英国和主张
的权利，它的处理，因为他认为合适的。
没收土地：威廉没收了所有英语谁死了战斗，与哈罗德和重新分配，其中大
部分支持者对他 的诺曼领主的土地。
这些初步的没收导致造反，这导致更多的没收，在一个周期后，继续在黑斯

廷斯战役几乎五年不间断。
炮台和城堡的建设：要放下，防止进一步的叛乱中，诺曼人建造的要塞和城
堡上规模空前的品种。
指定继承人：如果土地拥有者的英语没有问题死了，国王可以指定继承人，
而且往往选择从 诺曼底的继任者。
继承控制：威廉和他的贵族也行使寡妇和女儿的财产继承更严格的控制，经
常迫使婚姻到诺曼。
没有在社会上英语：诺曼人流离失所的当地贵族，并注意到社会上行列的控
制。到1086 年，法国人的名字为主，即使在较低级别的贵族。
3.3意义诺曼征服
诺曼征服是一个举足轻重的举足轻重的英国历史事件有以下几个原因：
1）本征服英格兰更加紧密地联系与欧洲大陆通过了诺曼贵族的推出，从而
减轻斯堪的纳维亚的影响。
2）创造了欧洲最强大的君主之一，并产生了一种复杂的政府制度。
3）征服改变了英语语言和文化，并为与法国的竞争，将持续到20世纪间歇
性的阶段。
4。亨利二世的改革
威廉死在诺曼底1087。他离开诺曼底他的长子名叫罗伯特，他和英格 兰的第二
个儿子命名为威廉Rufus和他所有的钱给他的第三个儿子命名为亨利。威廉鲁弗
斯 成为著名的威廉二世，但他的兄弟被打死，成为继他知道亨利一
亨利一世死于1135，不留下任何子 嗣。他的女儿，叫明德，结婚贺金雀花。明
德的儿子，名为亨利，成为国王，知道作为亨利二世和金雀花 王朝的创始人。
亨利二世是金雀花众议院的第一位国王。通过他的婚姻为他获得了法国公主法国
西部的一半。为了帮助他统治的大王国，新国王加强了了不起的委员会，并进行
了一系列改革。
亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制巩固君主制。他强迫佛兰芒雇佣军离开英
国 回顾了皇家土地赠款他以前的国王斯蒂芬提出 斯蒂芬建拆除许多城
堡 “ 的时间，加强和扩大他的警长的权力和武装的支持依靠的英语组成的民兵
自由人。
亨利二世改革的途径，法院和法律。
国王亨利二世大大加强了法院和扩大了司法工作。他分为六个 电路和各任命
法官全国。例，因此，谁听说过的应用间歇法官秉公执法。在位期间，一个共同
的 规律，逐步建立了在当地贵族以前的法律地位。他还介绍了新的陪审员制度，
以取代旧的考验的审判制度 。此外，他转移了与主教法庭国王法庭审判被控犯刑
事罪行的神职人员。

5。约翰国王和大宪章
5.1约翰国王成功地在1199他的侄子理查一世。
十年 后，亨利二世去世后，他的第三个和最小的儿子接替他的第二个儿子理查德，
成为国王，他说是最差的英 国国王。他在被击败，失去了与法国诺曼底1204年
的战争。
他要求更多的封建税和军 队服务，以报复法国自己。上议院变得愤怒，游行
到伦敦，强迫他签署1215年6月17日一个长文档 。该文件被称为大宪章。
王约翰撕毁与教皇的帮助大宪章。

战争爆发，约翰终于失去了战争和1216年去世。
5.2大宪章的规定，有三个组：
大宪章，或大宪章，是英国历史最重要的文件。它是重要的独立宣言的美国英
语的人。它一直被视为 “ 角石“ 的英国历史。它由63个条款，其中最重要的
部分条文如下：
国王必须承诺遵守他的诸候的权利（男爵）的附庸，从而必须遵守他们的人的权
利。
商人是不小的罪行是他的货物被剥夺，也不是他的车，并实现农民。无税应征收
的王国未经大议会同意。
没有自由的人应被监禁或流放，或以任何方式惩罚，除非他的同胞陪审团定罪。
王应允许商人自由地走动，观察各城镇的特权。

5.3大宪章意义
大 宪章是宪政实验和法治的第一步。它试图建立通过定义各自的权利和义务之间
的国王和他的大亨法律关系
大宪章铺平了道路为新出生的资产阶级的方式获得政治权力，因为它赋予更多的
权力，大议会， 这是对英国议会的雏形。
本章保护了商人阶层的权利。这促进了商业和手工业的发展。
大宪 章规定了英国和美国的法律制度的基本规则。它提出了保护生命，财产，防
止政府滥用权力的问题。

6。议会的诞生
6.1亨利三世的王朝
亨利三世（1216年至1272年在位）加冕在9岁。
他希望他能击败领主并与教皇帮助其章程：（顾问，教会后）
安史之乱打破了西蒙V德蒙福特（莱斯特伯爵6）出的佼佼者。
上议院迫使国王解雇他的外国顾问，并接受他们的顾问自己的议会，而不是。
蒙特福特 “ 的新理事会注意到财政和所有国家官员的控制，然后定下心来
工作的改革。
西蒙称在1265后，在其中亨利三世兵败被俘战斗的国会。
除老年组，有两个骑士从每个郡和两个从每个城市公民。它被称为 “ 所有
屋议会（各级议会）。 “
6.2爱德华一世的王朝
爱德华一世成功地在1272年他的父亲，亨利三世。他征服了 威尔士和苏格
兰的一个进行长期作战，但他在金钱的需要不断的。
在1295年，他召见 “ 所有屋议会 “ - 在所有超过400人。由于该议会
是作为一种模式后，它成为历史上被称为 “ 标准议会（模范议会）。 “
6.3爱德华二世的王朝
爱德华二世成功地在130 7他的父亲。他是一个软弱和懒惰之王。他离开了
政府的工作，他的家庭的最爱。党的领主对他形成。
议会提出一项计划，要求所有国家官员的公共任命。议会迫使爱德华二世交
出王冠给他的儿 子在1327。
1.2百年战争（1337至1453年）
的原因

英国国王 “ 自称的法国王位。
这些阶段
这场战争是一系列冲突，通常分为三或四个阶段：
1）爱德华战争（1337 - 1360），
2）加战争（1369 - 1389），
3）兰开斯特战争（1415 - 1429），以及
4）后，圣女贞德（1412外观英语命运缓慢下降 - 1431年）。
它终于结束了在英国从法国驱逐出境。
在早期的短语，英语是在进攻，并取得了伟大 胜利。亨利五世曾经确认为王
位继承人，法国，和他的儿子被承认在1422的法国和英国国王。
在最后一个阶段，与圣女贞德的出现，法国人开始采取行动的进攻。
结果
到了战争结束的时候，英国已经失去了所有的他们在战争期间获得的领土。
英国经历了重要的政治，经济 和社会变革。
政治上：
虽然国王在金钱需要不断的战争，还经常召集议会批准税收和法 律问题。从
1343年起，国会分为两院：上议院，一个领先的神职人员和领导诸候的身体，
和 下议院，小贵族（骑士）身上府。政治上的平民被劣质劣，因为他们在经济上
向伟大的封建地主。
经济：
英国未能征服佛兰德导致政府鼓励家庭毛纺行业。英国很快成为更多的是布，少的原毛单纯的生产者制造商。
对社会：
战争加速了封建社会的崩溃。战争的巨大开支摆在更加重要的位置，英国的
钱类，新的资产阶级。

贞德：（下载） 百年 “ 战争（下载）
1.2黑死病
黑死病切割路径 - 既文字和图形 - 通过14世纪中叶。这是造成的腺（腹
股沟腺炎的）鼠疫。它 是由老鼠传播，其携带的鼠疫杆菌的跳蚤（杆状菌从东）
沿贸易航线，并渗透几乎所有的欧洲，造成至少 一人 在欧洲每三出。

黑死病达到了1348夏季英国，它是在中世纪的许多严重的 瘟疫，造成约40％
的英国人口（350万）。
直接后果：
在农村和欠硕士（ 农业劳动力伙计）和帮工（帮工，计日工城市）举行了罢
工更好的工资。恶棍（无产者），其劳动是不自 由奋斗了充分的自由。
结果：
1）较高的工资和更大的自由劳动者的工资
为恶棍2）平等的优势。
3）加速了庄园系统故障封地系统。
订购1349爱德华三世和“劳动者章程”
为了解决劳动力短缺问题，在1349年爱德 华三世颁布命令。它要求下面
sixty所有成年男性和女性，有没有土地或其他方式的生活，共同为业 主和瘟疫

率前的东主。
而议会亦发出两份雕像在1351年和1361，统称为称为 “ 劳动者章程 “ 。
它介绍了那些谁拒绝工作残酷的惩罚。一个普通的仇恨之所以引起反对部长，律
师和地主。

犹太人：的代罪羔羊
犹太人，应该携带鼠疫杆菌对英国，受到迫害。燃烧的犹太人在黑死病流行，
1349。
1.3笏泰勒的起义
原因：
农民生活恶化：一个新的人头税期间，理查德二世统治时期
约翰球的说教
约翰球， 一个激进的教士，穿过英格兰东南部和表达了农民和他们的贵族们强烈
的仇恨之苦。后来，他被俘虏。
（自然灾害和社会问题，最终导致了农民起义，在1381政府强加给农民一个单
位率1先令头 人头税，以资助百年的战争，这直接导致了农民起义。）
过程：
农民起义在1381的 夏天。他们决定取消农奴制。笏泰勒是最重要的军事领
导人。农民从县监狱释放约翰球和开车离去或死亡 的国王 “ 的税收收藏家。他
们袭击的贵族“庄园和寺院，甚至死亡的贵族。
农民很快 就在伦敦六月，1381。理查德二世，14岁，决定吨发挥他们的伎
俩。6月14日，国王会见了伦敦 郊外的叛军，听取他们的投诉，并得到他们的
请愿书。与农民举行了和谈。农民要求1）从villai nage，2自由）的教堂被重
新组织，将留在英国只有一个主教，3改革）的A的所有场所，是平等的 ，除了
- 在景社会。
国王1）承诺给予他们的要求和2）条发出的赦免谁去给大家在和平的家;
农民半就回家了。
然而在接下来的交谈，国王打破了他的诺言，背信弃义的杀害笏泰勒，把数
百名叛乱分子死 亡，镇压起义。

死亡的泰勒（LEGO视频）（下载）
意义：
农民 “ 起义沉重打击了贵族与国王和他们的头部震动了英国封建社会的基
础。
1.4玫瑰战争（1455〜1485）
英国统治由兰开斯特宫1399年至1461年。
封建贵族分成两组：兰开斯特和约克党。
他们争权力，财富和占有的官方最终。英国已成为封建无政府状态由15世
纪中叶。
英格兰被扔进另一个其中兰开斯特之间的战斗谁穿了红玫瑰和约克党谁穿
了白玫瑰，145 5年至1485年断断续续的内战系列。
兰卡斯特：苏格兰和威尔士的国界贵族
在约克党：渐进南，从东英吉利和伦敦
战争持续了30年。开放式的战斗很少，但谋杀和复仇是共同的。

从1461年的约克党统治，但战争并没有结束，直到1485年。
在自然界之间的战争是一个商业头脑的绅士和落后的封建地主的斗争。旧的
封建贵族被大大削弱。
当亨利都铎，创办一个新的君主，来到1485年继位，旧的封建贵族已如此
削弱，它已不 再是在该州的重要因素。
常见的人影响不大，因此获得了当时的经济生活。

对玫瑰（下载）和在莎士比亚的作品的战争战争的进程（下载）
1.5衰落的封建主义 所有这些事件，百年战争（1337〜1453），黑死病，笏泰勒的起义（1381），在玫
瑰战 争（1455〜1485），动摇了封建社会的基础和明显的解体和封建主义的衰落
在英国。

2。都铎王朝
后的玫瑰战争结束，在都铎家登上了国王亨利七世人的宝座。都铎王朝被称为新
的君主，因为它是从以前的君主制不同。很多的贵族中被打死的玫瑰的战争，许
多大的封建家庭 ，结果被破坏，都铎王室的地位大大加强。中力量的平衡，对国
王和资产阶级的优势，改变铺平了道路为 建立强大的中央政府的方式。封建分离，
封建主义的特点，已不再可能。为了保护商业和降落的中产阶级 （商人和自由农
民），对其中的都铎君主自己的权力和知名度靠的利益，君主强调了贸易的发展。
为了确保出口市场，君主制鼓励对外扩张。也正是在都铎王朝的美国被发现，并
成为英国文艺复兴时期 的传播。这一切都有助于准备的资本主义生产方式在英国
成立的条件。与此同时，财富大的资本主义发展 所需要的金额累计。为英国资产
阶级接管政权一天已经不远了。都铎王朝从而担任过渡阶段从封建主义向 资本主
义在英国的历史。

2.1亨利七世
亨利七世是都铎君主第一君 主。他给了禁止贵族的权力过大，以保持英国非常坚
定的规则。他明确向所有外国列强，这是为那些谁希 望为英格兰队的麻烦，使危
险。通过仔细外交，给了亨利七世在国内外英格兰和平。这使他建立英国的海 军
和对外贸易。英国的国际威望提高反映在了当时其他欧洲君主渴望。其他欧洲君
主们仍然热衷 于使民族国家的君主曾在“绝对权力”。换句话说，他们仍然有总
功率和他们没有任何讨论与协商机构的 政策。这不是对亨利七世可能的，因为在
英国议会已经是一个相当重要的机构，国王不得不咨询如果国王 希望得到的钱。

2.2亨利八世和改革教会
他通常是记住他的轻浮的形象。他 曾在另外六个妻子之一。他离婚两次因涉嫌通
奸和执行他的妻子两个。他加强了对边远地区和地方政府的 控制。他没有让贵族
控制地方政府，但摆在士绅（小地主），谁被任命为超过法律和农村管理的全部功能太平绅士的手中。他们直接负责的国王。在外交事务亨利八世，由托马斯沃
尔西，大主教和大法 官的帮助下，试图寻求在欧洲为英国积极的作用。他试图在
友好的条款同一天，两个超级大国 - 法国和西班牙。
亨利八世的最大贡献是，他开始了在英国的教会改革。国王认为是时候进行改革，因为在以马丁路德宣扬的思想的影响英文的人，期望教会的改革。届时，英国也

< br>成为一个集中的民族国家。共同的民族意识正在发展，许多人对教皇在英国的内
部事务的干涉了。 在Lollards支持者认为这是对教会的控制这么多土地和财富
的错误。国王还看了covetou sly在神职人员的财富，他的结论是，教会改革的
君主的兴趣，认为在政治上和在贫困条件。
其直接原因是亨利八世的离婚案中涉及的政治需要。国王娶了凯瑟琳，一位西班
牙公主和他已故的哥哥 的妻子，保持与西班牙，这是一个在欧洲大国的联盟，亨
利八世与西班牙要打破的领带和改善中法关系。 凯瑟琳不得不采取的出路。和他
的焦虑，凯瑟琳未能对他产生男性继承人。焦虑增加了他对安妮•博林的 爱。亨
利八世教皇克莱门特七世应用趾为凯瑟琳离婚的权限，以便他能娶安娜博林。但
是教皇拒 绝撤销对得罪西班牙国王，凯瑟琳的侄子担心他的婚姻。愤怒的国王由
他自己决定采取行动。
亨利的改革，削减英国与教皇的宗教联系，并提出与罗马这个突破1529和1534
之间逐渐 他要求国会切断教皇从英国的收入。对1534年从继承法禁止天主教徒
继承英国王位。在至高无上 的行为至尊法案获得通过表示在1535至高无上 的，
而不是教皇国王。这样一来， 亨利八世采取了英国教会最高元首称号。
他不想以任何方式改变神学。他所做的只是为了获得在英国内 政的干涉摆脱罗马
教皇。但他对教皇的权力攻击鼓励了许多人批评天主教教会。因此，很多f的人
想要摆脱天主教和新教的思想转向。

2.3玛丽
亨利八世之后由他的儿子爱 德华六世谁进行了激烈的宗教变化。他切换到新教神
学和他大刀阔斧的改革被称为英国历史“的改革”
之后，爱德华六世在1553年去世，他的姐姐玛丽都铎成为王后。玛丽，像她的
母亲凯瑟琳， 是一个虔诚的天主教徒。她嫁给了西班牙菲利普二世，并试图恢复
罗马天主教在英国。因此，许多人被迫 害他们在新教的意见的坚持。约300新教
徒被烧毁的异端和玛丽被认为是“血腥玛丽”之称。

2.4伊丽莎白一世
她是亨利八世和他的第二任妻子安娜博林的女儿。
向议会：她能够与议会，但她认为她的特权违反了议会的需求。
对宗教：妥协的意见。她推翻 了自己在英国宣布“信仰捍卫者”的对宗教事务的
教皇至高无上的地位。她打破了罗马宗教的关系，并恢 复了英国教会独立，但她
保持在天主教教义和做法。她施加的共同祈祷书，你选择的圣经英语，在英国所
有的教堂，但同时她容忍谁被允许在家中使用自己选择的祈祷书秘密异议。她温
和的宗教政策是 不能接受的两个著名的清教徒极端的新教徒和天主教徒殷切。
外界：她成功地发挥互相抵销两大天主教 的权力，法国和西班牙。她无法获得在
欧洲主要冲突的英格兰。她避免与西班牙公开的敌意，但她暗地里 鼓励英国
seadogs突袭西班牙殖民地和掠夺的是重新调整回了家，她获得了西班牙的包机
公司，如东印度公司，建立章程，以英国商人西班牙船只，以磕开这反过来又促
进了英国国内的产业发展 国外市场。
西班牙国王菲利普伊丽莎白终于意识到我是他最危险的对手，派出了130艘英国
舰队。该舰队航行了英吉利海峡和大海战爆发。英国战列舰全身心地投入到消防
船恐慌他们的敌人。而焦 头烂额舰队向北逃离混乱。在风暴捉住，西班牙军舰的
许多死亡和f中只有一半挣扎回老家西班牙，英格 兰从来没有再次入侵。

西班牙无敌舰队的毁灭削弱了英国的主要竞争对手之 一。这场胜利不仅确立为主
要海上力量的英国的立场，但也铺平了其作为国家对外殖民扩张的方式。伊丽 莎
白被视为大英帝国这是要尽快形成基础层。

1。工业革命
1.1简介
时间：在18世纪末和19世纪初
变化领域：农业，制造业和交通运输
深刻的影响：在英国的社会经济和文化条件
传播：从开始英国和整个欧洲和北美蔓延，并最终世界
过程：在18世纪后期的手工劳动为基础的大不列颠王国经济开始受到行业
和机械制造为主的取代。
它开始与纺织行业，炼铁技术的发展和精煤增加使用机械化。
贸易：贸易扩张是由运河， 改善道路和铁路引入启用。引进的蒸汽动力（主
要是煤燃料）和动力机械（主要是纺织品制造业）带动生 产能力的急剧增加。
重工业：所有金属加工机床中的前两个十年的发展在19世纪促进了更多的< br>生产机器在其他行业的生产制造。
第二次工业革命之后围绕1850年第一次工业革命：
交通运输是指：蒸汽为动力的船舶，铁路的发展;
功率：内燃机和电动机发电;
性质：工业化进程。
意义：
在工业革命的开始，标志着人类社会历史的重大转折，堪比农业发明或第一
城邦的崛起。
每个人的日常生活和社会的各个方面，最终以某种方式影响。
人均国内生产总值大致稳定在工 业革命和现代资本主义经济的出现。工业革命开
始了人均在资本主义经济体的经济增长时代。
黑死病：是现代的名称给予致命传染病蔓延的鼠蚤。它传遍欧洲在14世纪，通
过英国席卷了1348年 的夏天。它减少了英格兰的人口从400万到200万由14
世纪的结束。

1。工业革命
1.1简介
时间：在18世纪末和19世纪初
变化领域：农业，制造业和交通运输
深刻的影响：在英国的社会经济和文化条件
传播：从开始英国和整个欧洲和北美蔓延，并最终世界
过程：在18世纪后期的手工劳动为基础的大不列颠王国经济开始受到行业
和机械制造为主的取代。
它开始与纺织行业，炼铁技术的发展和精煤增加使用机械化。
贸易：贸易扩张是由运河， 改善道路和铁路引入启用。引进的蒸汽动力（主
要是煤燃料）和动力机械（主要是纺织品制造业）带动生 产能力的急剧增加。
重工业：所有金属加工机床中的前两个十年的发展在19世纪促进了更多的< br>生产机器在其他行业的生产制造。

第二次工业革命之后围绕1850年第一次工业革命：
交通运输是指：蒸汽为动力的船舶，铁路的发展;
功率：内燃机和电动机发电;
性质：工业化进程。
意义：
在工业革命的开始，标志着人类社会历史的重大转折，堪比农业发明或第一
城邦的崛起。
每个人的日常生活和社会的各个方面，最终以某种方式影响。
人均国内生产总值大致稳定在工 业革命和现代资本主义经济的出现。工业革命开
始了人均在资本主义经济体的经济增长时代。


气候与地理
？ 的海洋型气候： 在英国天气多雨，多变和不可预测的。事实上，它有
一个良好的海洋性气候。
？ 它很少上升到高于32 ℃ ，夏季或低于 - 10 ℃ ，冬季。冬季温和，
不太冷，夏季凉爽，不要太热。
？ 通过七河发源于英格兰中部的布里斯托尔海峡东北威尔士和流动。
？ 它是355公里，是英国最长的河流。

英国教育
英国法律规定儿童有接受教育 ，直到他们16岁。教育是义务教育，但学校不，
孩子不需要上学。他们可能是就读于home.199 6英国1996年的第7州教育法教
育法“的每一个义务教育适龄儿童的家长须安排他接受有效的全日制 教育适合
- （一）以他的年龄，能力和才能，以及（b）任何特殊的教育需要，他可能不
是 由经常出席学校或其他方式。“教育是对所有5至18岁以下儿童免费。约94％
的英国学生，而英国其 他地区，百分之接受公共资金的自由教育，而6％出席独
立自费学校。
所有政府开办的学校， 公立学校，遵循相同的国家课程。学年。学校今年是39
周一般情况下，孩子们开始在任期的第一天学校 后，他们又 11
岁，他们转移到普通高中学校，中学闻名。什么时候离开学校的孩子？英国儿童
都必须上学，直至他们16岁。在16岁，学生写的考试称为GCSE（普通中等教
育证书）。所有学 生测试数学，英语文学，英语作文，化学，生物，物理，历史
或古典，一个现代的语言，和另外一个主题 ，如艺术或计算机的研究。在完成
GCSE，一些学生走出校门，到其他技术大学去，而其他人继续在高 中的两年，并
采取标准化考试为A级称，在三，四科，进一步树立。这些考试决定学生是否为
大 学的资格。教育阶段：儿童在英国教育一般分成两个独立的阶段划分。他们开
始与小学教育的五个年龄和 他们这通常持续到11个。然后，他们转移到中学，
他们在那里停留，直到他们达到十六，十七，十八岁