大便的学术用语
关于父母的爱的作文-个人半年总结
英语学术论文常用句型
beginning
1.
in this paper, we focus on the need for
2. this paper proceeds as follow.
3. the
structure of the paper is as follows.
4.
in this paper, we shall first briefly introduce
fuzzy sets and related concepts
5. to
begin with we will provide a brief background on
the
introduction
1. this will
be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature
of the problem and
a detailed presentation of
how the required membership functions are defined.
2. details on xx and xx are discussed in
later sections.
3. in the next section,
after a statement of the basic problem, various
situations
involving possibility knowledge are
investigated: first, an entirely possibility
model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy
service time with stochastic arrivals
and non
fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy
service rule are considered.
review
1. this review is followed by an
introduction.
2. a brief summary of some
of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is
presented
in section 2.
3. in the
next section, a brief review of the .... is given.
4. in the next section, a short review of
... is given with special regard to ...
5. section 2 reviews relevant research related to
xx.
body
1. section 1 defines
the notion of robustness, and argues for its
importance.
2. section 1 devoted to the
basic aspects of the flc decision making logic.
3. section 2 gives the background of the
problem which includes xxx
4. section 2
discusses some problems with and approaches to,
natural language
understanding.
5.
section 2 explains how flexibility which often ...
can be expressed in terms
of fuzzy time window
6. section 3 discusses the aspects of
fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...
7. section 3 describes the system itself in a
general way, including the „..
and also
discusses how to evaluate system performance.
8. section 3 describes a new measure of
xx.
9. section 3 demonstrates the use of
fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis
of
xx.
10. section 3 is a fine description
of fuzzy formulation of human decision.
11. section 3, is developed to the modeling and
processing of fuzzy decision rules
12.
the main idea of the flc is described in section 3
while section 4 describes
th
e xx
strategies.
13. section 3 and 4 show
experimental studies for verifying the proposed
model.
14. section 4 discusses a previous
fuzzy set based approach to cost variance
investigation.
15. section 4
gives a specific example of xxx.
16.
section 4 is the experimental study to make a
fuzzy model of memory process.
17.
section 4 contains a discussion of the implication
of the results of section
2 and 3.
18. section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the
analysis of xx and illustrate
its use on
experimental data.
19. section 5 presents
the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set
model ..
20. section 5 contains some
conclusions plus some ideas for further work.
21. section 6 illustrates the model with
an example.
22. various ways of
justification and the reasons for their choice are
discussed
very briefly in section 2.
23. in section 2 are presented the block diagram
expression of a whole model of
human dm system
24. in section 2 we shall list a
collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme
must satisfy.
25. in section 2 of
this paper, we present representation and
uniqueness theorems
for the fundamental
measurement of fuzziness when the domain of
discourse is order
dense.
26. in
section 3, we describe the preliminary results of
an empirical study
currently in progress to
verify the measurement model and to construct
membership
functions.
27. in section
5 is analyzed the inference process through the
two kinds of
inference experiments...
this section
1. in this section, the
characteristics and environment under which mrp is
designed are described.
2. we will
provide in this section basic terminologies and
notations which are
necessary for the
understanding of subsequent section
3.
however, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in
practical applications the
formulae were
rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next
section.
5. we can interpret the results
of experiments i and ii as in the following
sections.
6. the next section
summarizes the method in a from that is useful for
arguments
based on xx
summary
1. this paper concludes with a discussion of
future research consideration in
section
5.
2. section 5 summarizes the results of
this investigation.
3. section 5 gives
the conclusions and future directions of research.
4. section 7 provides a summary and a
discussion of some extensions of the paper.
5. finally, conclusions and future work are
summarized
6. the basic questions posed
above are then discussed and conclusions are
drawn.
7. section 7 is the conclusion of
the paper.
chapter 0. abstract
1. a basic problem in the design of xx is
presented by the choice of a xx rate
for the
measurement of experimental variables.
3.
this paper describes a system for the analysis of
the xx.
4. the method involves the
construction of xx from fuzzy relations.
5. the procedure is useful in analyzing how groups
reach a decision.
6. the technique used
is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx
algorithm.
7. the usefulness of xx is
also considered.
8. a brief methodology
used in xx is discussed.
9. the analysis
is useful in xx and xx problem.
10. a
model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy
matrices.
12. the use of the method is
discussed and an example is given.
13.
results of an experimental applications of this xx
analysis procedure are
given to illustrate the
proposed technique.
14. this paper
analyses problems in
15. this paper
outlines the functions carried out by ...
16. this paper includes an illustration of the ...
17. this paper provides an overview and
information useful for approaching
18.
emphasis is placed on the construction of a
criterion function by which the
xx in
achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are
evaluated.
19. the main emphasis is
placed on the problem of xx
20. our
proposed model is verified through experimental
study.
21. the experimental results
reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of:
xx,
xx
chapter 1. introduction
time
1. over the course of the past 30
years, .. has emerged form intuitive
2.
technological revolutions have recently hit the
industrial world
3. the advent of ...
systems for has had a significant impact on the
4. the development of ... is explored
5. during the past decade, the theory of
fuzzy sets has developed in a variety
of
directions
concept of xx was
investigated quite intensively in recent years
7. there has been a turning point in ...
methodology in accordance with the advent
of
...
8. a major concern in ... today is to
continue to improve...
10. at the time of
this writing, there is still no standard way of xx
11. although a lot of effort is being
spent on improving these weaknesses, the
efficient and effective method has yet to be
developed.
12. the pioneer work can be
traced to xx [1965].
objective goal
purpose
1. the purpose of the inference
engine can be outlined as follows:
3. the
paper concerns the development of a xx
4.
the scope of this research lies in
5. the main theme of the paper is the application
of rule based decision making.
6. these
objectives are to be met with such thoroughness
and confidence as to
permit ...
7.
the objectives of the ... operations study are as
follows:
8. the primary
purposeconsiderationobjective of
9. the
ultimate goal of this concept is to provide
10. the main objective of such a ... system is to
11. the aim of this paper is to provide
methods to construct such probability
distribution.
12. in order to achieve
these objectives, an xx must meet the following
requirements:
13. in order to take
advantage of their similarity
15. in this
trial, the objective is to generate...
16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research
issues
17. a major goal of this report is
to extend the utilization of a recently
developed procedure for the xx.
18.
for an illustrative purpose, four well known or
problems are studied in
presence of fuzzy
data: xx.
19. a major thrust of the paper
is to discuss approaches and strategies for
structuring ..methods
20. this
illustration points out the need to specify
21. the ultimate goal is both descriptive and
prescriptive.
22. chapter 2. literature
review
23. a wealth of information is to
be found in the statistics literature, for
example, regarding xx
24. a
considerable amount of research has been done ..
during the last decade
25. a great number
of studies report on the treatment of
uncertainties associated
with xx.
26.
there is considerable amount of literature on
planning
27. however, these studies do
not provide much attention to uncertainty in xx.
28. since then, the subject has been
extensively explored and it is still under
investigation as well in
methodological aspects as in concrete
applications.
29. many research studies
have been carried out on this topic.
30.
problem of xx draws recently more and more
attention of system analysis.
31.
attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in
the development of
33. most of the
methods developed so far are deterministic and or
probabilistic
in nature.
34. the
central issue in all these studies is to
35. the problem of xx has been studied by other
investigators, however, these
studies have
been based upon classical statistical approaches.
36. applied ... techniques to
37.
characterized the ... system as
38.
developed an algorithm to
39.
developed a system called ... which
40.
uses an iterative algorithm to deduce
41.
emphasized the need to
42. identifies six
key issues surrounding high technology
44. much work has been reported recently in these
filed
45. proposedpresentedstate
thatdescribedillustrated
indicatedhas
shown showedaddresshighlights
46. point
out that the problem of
47. a study on
...was done developed by []
48. previous
work, such as [] and [], deal only with
49. the approach taken by [] is
50. the
system developed by [] consists
51. a
paper relevant to this research was published by
[]
52. []s model requires consideration
of...
53. [] model draws attention to
evolution in human development
54. []s
model focuses on...
55. little research
has been conducted in applying ... to
56.
the published information that is relevant to this
research...篇二：国际
学术会议常用语(英语)
学术会议常用表达
1. 有关会议的一般信息
（1）名称
conference academic conference annual
meetingsymposiumconference
international
conference forum, international forum
symposium workshop
（2）日期
datesimportant dateskey dates
（3）地点
locationvenue conference locationvenue
（4）主题
issuesthemes(main)topicsscope of
conference topic of interests
conference
themestopics
2．论文征稿、提交与录用
call
for abstractproposalpaperpaper deadline deadline
for abstractfull
paperproposal submission
submission deadline deadline extended date for
mortification of acceptance paper
acceptancerejection will be informed by„
deadline for authors notificationcamera ready
version deadline
3. 会议注册
deadlineclosing date for registration registration
fees and itemstelegraphic
transfer only
registration form official invitation letter
bank transfer
registration information
payment bank draftcheck
4.
会议进程及内容
conference scheduleprogram
preliminary conference program
5. 会议具体细节
opening question and answer
themepaper presentation closing
6．学术会议的问答讨论环节口语
学术报告之后的问答讨论环节（question
and answer session）是同行之间交流的良好
机
会，双方可以针对报告中的具体问题进行探讨
（1）答问的方式与技巧
回答讨论环节可以让报告人通过互动及时地获得信息反馈并可以把在讨论中或得的建设
性建议用于下一步
的工作，因此对科研工作有很大的促进作用。对于如此重要的环节，报告
人在报告之前应进行必要的准备
，尽可能地保证这一环节完整、流畅地进行，一般应注意以
下几点。
① 准备工作
学术报告中的提问者往往是相关领域中的专家，对报告的内容非常熟悉，因此所提出的
问题可能会有相当的深度、广度以及不可预见性，有时甚至直接指出研究工作中的不完善之
处或漏洞所在
。由于时间关系，回答者在现场一般没有充分的时间进行考虑，这就要求报告
人要事先进行充分的准备。
在报告前，报告人应将对答环节的准备作为准备工作的一部分，
进行深入考虑，全面的预测听众可能提出
的问题，可以假设一些问题，并准备好最合适的解
答。如果会议没有统一安排每个报告的问答环节，报告
者在进行报告时就要预先告知听众随
后的q＆a session，这样可以让听众为提问做好准备。
② 过程控制
在时间允许的情况下尽可能让每个想提问的人都有机会提问
，不要让少数提问者的提问
占据整个讨论环节，应按照提问者举手示意的顺序来请出提问者。在开始回答
问题时，首先
与提问者目光接触，然后转向其他所有听众，这样可以获得所有听众的注意。在回答完毕之
后，可以再次通过目光了解提问者是否对回答表示满意。报告人应控制整个讨论的过程，对
于与
主题无关的问题可以礼貌地回避。
③ 答问方式
应首先仔细听清问题
，在回答之前应将问题清楚的重复一遍，这可以保证对问题的正确
理解，确保每个人都能听清楚问题，同
时给自己一些时间来思考，表述答案前可做片刻停留，
这既引起了听众的注意，又表明了对答案的谨慎态
度，同时也给自己留更多的思考空间。不
要对问题进行评价，避免说类似“that was a
great question”的话，如果想要对某一问题
进行肯定，可以用“thanks for
asking that question”或“i get asked that question
by
many people.”等中性的表述，还可以让听众感到平等。回答问题时应尽可能简洁，
切题。
在回答中应尽可能多地提及报告中的内容，这有利于听众对报告内容加深印象，并有利于控
制问答环节的主题。
④ 问题的类型
对于寻求具体解释的一些问题
，可以简单地重复报告的内容来对问题进行说明或证明，
或是澄清听众的误解。如果提问者对报告内容提
出不同见解，可以通过资料、事实、数据等
来证明自己的观点，但一定注意态度要礼貌谦和。对于过于复
杂的深层问题无法进行简单回
答时，可以在简略回答之后邀约提问者在其他时间进行讨论。对于听众的评
价或是建议应表
示感谢，但要控制时间，适时地打断发言人并转入下一个问题。对不知道答案的问题应坦
率
的承认，不要回避或转换话题，并尽可能提供相关的书籍，资料或是该方面的专家以供参考。
⑤ 时间的把握
为了能够巧妙地结束回答问题环节，可事
先准备一段总结性的陈述用来重申报告主题并
结束问答环节。注意在达到规定时间时应立刻结束讨论环节
，在回答最后一个问题之前们就
要礼貌地表示即将超时，并可以让其他提问者将问题留在会后进行讨论。
⑥ 提问者的礼仪
大型会议中回答环节的时间往往比较短暂，提问者应抓住机会参与讨论，同时应注意以
下方面。
如果为提问者准备了麦克风，则应在拿到麦克风后等待阿加安静下来在进行提问；大声
地表述，让提问者和听众都能够听清楚问题；不必解释提问的理由以免浪费时间，但如果适
宜可以需要地
介绍自己（一定要简要）；对所提的问题应做好准备，以保证问题的有效性（不
要提那些答案显而易见的
问题）提问务必简短；每次尽量只提一个问题，把更多的机会留给
其他听众。
（2）常用表达
① 提问
i would like to
askaddressraise a question about„ i would like to
know(whether)„ i would be glad to
know(whether)„ i have a question about„
may i ask (a question about)„?
my
question isconcernsis concerned with„ what i would
like to ask is„ what
i am asking is „
i would be gratefulappreciateobligedfor(to have)
some explanation about„
i am curious
aboutinterested inkeen on(whetherwhyhowwhatwhen)„?
could
you please tell me
whetherwhyhowwhatwhen„? do you mind showing me
whetherwhyhowwhatwhen„? i could not understand
what you really mean by„ do you
have any ideas
about„? what do you think ofabout„? could you
back„up?
could you give us an example
about„?
could you provide any example to
prove what you have said about„? could you give
any example that shows„?
② 回答
a. 对问题进行确认
are you asking me the question
about„?
i am not quite about the
question? do you mean„?
i am not quite
sure what your question is. could you address your
question more
specifically? what do you mean
by„?
i don’t known whether i have
understood your question correctly. do you mean„.?
b. 肯定会否定的表示 yes. i do.
the answer is
(not) correcttrueright„ exactly! precisely! i
think so.
i think you’re right. i don’t
think so.
that is just what i mean. that
is not what i mean.
i couldn’t agree
more. c. 正面回答
my answer(to the question)
is„
in my opinion, the conclusion can be
supported by the experimental result that„
to
answer your question, i’d like to repeat what i
said just know. i think this picture
will be
helpful for your understanding. here, i’d like to
explain it briefly.
my idea is on the
basis of two points. the first is„, and the second
is„ i will
explain by some examples. d. 非正面回答
now i can only present same
estimation about that„
as far as i know,
little in-depth research has bean carried out yet.
i can only
providei have only a partial answer
to that question. that’s one possible explanation,
but not the only one.
i’m afraid it’s
a bit difficult for me to present some
experimental data at
the moment to support the
theory since my idea is mainly out of theoretical
consideration.
i think the answer to
the question needs some further study. i’m afraid
is not
within the field of the presentation.
i’m not sure if what you’re saying has any
relevance here.
i’m not sure if what
you’re saying has anything to do with our problem.
i’
m not sure if what you’re saying really
matters in this case.
i’m not sure if what
you’re saying is relevant to our problem. e.
无法回答
时的表述
i’m sorry my
experienceknowledge about your question is very
limited so i think
i cannot give a good answer
to your question.
i’m sorry i really
don’t know the answer to the question.
unfortunately i cannot
answer the question at
the moment.
i’m afraid i have no idea how
to answer your question (about that).
sorry, i’m afraid i know little about that matter,
so i don’t think i can answer
your question
right now.
it’s quite difficult for me to
answer that question now. i can’t really recall;
i’ll have to get back to you on that.
i can’t quite remember; i’ll need to do a little
checking and get back to you.
i can’t fully
remember; i’ll have to check up on it. i can’t
recall all the facts;
i’ll have to get back to
you. f. 回答之后的表述
i wonder whether my
question is helpful to you. does that answer your
question
in a right way? is my explanation
clear enough?
is that what you wanted me
to answer?
would anyone like to give
their ideas on this?
would anyone care to
add their thoughts(to the
discussion)?篇三：与上厕所相关
的英语表达
忍不了了，本来不想说啥的，但是看到很多让人特别蛋疼的留言，最让人凌乱的有三个：
1,很多人纠结这个no.1 no.2, 说什么别的什么都不用记，只要记住这俩就行了。我了
个去
，老湿难道你说中文时就只会说:我要上大号我要上小号？？反正我很少这么说。而且我
也很少听见过n
o.1 no.2。而且，最让人蛋疼的是说这些话的老湿们连1和2分别指的是哪
个都分不清。记住了
，1是小2是大，ok？？？
2,很多人纠结这个大便和拉屎这俩词的区别。你能分得清洗手间和茅房这俩词的区别
不？
3,很多人纠结这个所谓高雅低俗。说这篇文章是低俗的。我觉得说这话的人有三类，第
一类，英语很牛
逼，我敬佩你。第二类，永远不会有机会用英语来表达日常卫生问题，我觉
得你说这种话你就是傻逼。第
三类，你在国外的时候，要是不会说这些而找不到洗手间拉在
裤子里，我看你到时候是高雅还是低俗。
写这个日志就是帮助大家了解比较规范的日常用语怎么说。只要大家生活中别再出现i
want to make shit 或者一辈子只会说 no.1 no.2
这些情况就达到我的目的了。
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-----------------------------蛋疼的分割线
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下文中厕所的英文适用于北美 在英国我只说过toilet 和
loo（may i use your loo?
能用一下您的厕所吗？）偶尔见到过w.c
，在这里bathroom不代表厕所，原因很简单，因
为英国传统居民住房的那种最普遍的semi-
detached house（两家挨一起的那种房子），分上
下两层，上层是卧室，下层是客厅餐厅
和厨房，上下层都有洗手间，上层洗手间里有卫浴设
施供主人使用，下层只有马桶和洗手池，供客人使用
，客人来了后如果问toilet在哪，都是
指下层的厕所。之所以有的同学家里只有一个在下层的洗手
间，并且马桶和浴室在一起，一
般是因为房东为了能多租一间房把你家楼上的洗手间改成一间小卧室了。
或者你租的是那种
terrace
house（联排房）属于贫民经济适用房，也是为了节省空间而只有一个卫生间
总结日常的最简单说法，你在什么情形下说什么样的中文时就说对应的英文：
i want
to pee. 我想尿尿。
i want to urinate. 我想小便。
i want to poop. 我想拉屎。
i want to
defecate. 我想大便。
-------------------------
----------------------------乳酸的分割线
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以下科普知识转自一位留学前辈的文章：
英语里的大便、小便、放p,真正应该怎么说
一名中国留学生初到美国，在机场找厕所，问老外：「where is
w.c.？」老外听不懂。
一名中国太太到医院生产，洋护士问她：「did you have a
bowel movement？」她却听不懂。
还有人学了几十年的英语，还不晓得英语里
的「大便」、「小便」、「放*」真正应该怎么说„„
至于性毛病，更是老中难于启齿、欲
语还羞的尴尬。见到洋医生，窘迫万分，不知如何
开口才是，真有「犹抱琵琶半遮面」的感受。
以下为一些「禁忌」（taboo）的美语之整理。毕竟这些都是咱们日常生活的一部分，说<
br>不定有一天这些「禁忌」之语还能「派上用场」呢！
厕所
在美国一般都叫rest room或bath room（男女厕均可）或分别叫做 men?s room
或
ladies? room（=powder room），不过在飞机上，则叫
lavatory，在军中又叫 latrine。至
于 w.c.（water
closet）仍是过去英国人用的，在美国，几乎没有人使用。
解小便
最普通的说法是 to urinate（名词是
urination），如果去看病，护士为了化验小便，
就会给你一个杯子说：「will
（could） you urinate in this cup？」医生或许也会问：「do
you have trouble urinating？」=do you have
difficulty voiding？（小便有困难吗？）
此外，还有其他的说法：to piss = to take a piss = to take a
leak = to void = to
empty。 例如：
i need
to piss = i have to take a leak.
how
often do you get up at night to void？（晚上起床小便几次？）
此外，john（j 小写时，不是男人名字）是 bath room 或 toilet
的意思（也叫
outhouse），
这通常是指在户外工作场地所使用的临时或流动性厕所（有时前面也加
portable 一字）。不
过也有老外把家里的厕所叫做 john。 例如：
there are several （portable） johns in the
construction site.（在建筑场地有
几个临时厕所。）
he went to the john a few minutes
ago.（他在几分钟前上了厕所。）
the manual labours have
to use (portable) johns during their working
hours.
（劳动者在工作时间内需要使用流动性厕所。）
不过，小孩多半用
to pee 。例如：
the boy needs to pee.
然而，「小便检查」又叫做 urine test，因为这里的 urine
是化验的样品（specimen）。
例如：
do i need a
urine test?
注意：to piss off
是片语，又是指对人生气或对事物的不满。不过这是不礼貌的片语，
少用为妙。 例如： he
pissed me off. = he made me angry.
he
always pisses off （at） the society.（对社会不满）
如果「小便」有毛病，也可以告诉医生说：
my urine is cloudy
and it smells strong.（有浊尿，味道很重）
i have
pus （或air）in urine.（尿有泡沫） （pus = cloudy; air =
bubble）
i dribble a little urine after i
have finished urinating.（小便后还会滴滴答答。）
（即失禁毛病）
i am passing less urine than
usual.（小便的量比平时少）
解大便
一般是用 to
make（或 have）a bowel movement 或 to take a
shit。如果看病，医生
常问：「do you have regular bowel
movement？」（大便正常吗？）（说得斯文些，就是「大
肠在转动」）
此外，还有其他的说法： to defecate =to discharge excrement（或
feces）=to take
feces （或 faeces）。 例如：
the patient needs to take a shit. （=to make a
bowel movement）
不过，小孩多半是用 to make a poo
poo 或 to make a bm. 。 例如：
the boy had a
stinky bm.（大便奇臭。）
但是「大便检查」倒叫做 stool
exam，因为 stool 也是一种化验的样品。 例如：
the doctor
has to exam his stool.（医生要检查他的大便。)
放*
在美语里最常用的是 to expel gas 或 to fart 或 to make
（或 pass）gas。 例如：
医生有时问：「how often do you
expel（或 make 或 pass）gas？」（你放*的次数很多
吗？）
is the gas expelled by belching？（是否打嗝后就会放*呢？）（动词是
belch）
he said the more he ate, the more
he farted.（吃的愈多，放*也愈多。）
he has passed
more gas than usual within the last two
days.（过去两天中，他放
*比平常多。）
be careful not
to fart in the public.（注意在公共场所不可放*。）
至于消化不良，大便不通或拉肚子，也有不同的说法。 例如：
i have an
upset stomach.（消化不良） = i have heartburn. = i have
indigestion.
注意：heartburn
是指胃不舒服，不是「心痛」（heartache）
something has
upset my stomach for two weeks.（胃不舒服有两星期了。）
he has（persistent）constipation.（或
irregularity）（他经常便秘。) 或
he has been
unusually constipated.（便秘很反常。）或
he
is having problem with irregularity.（或
constipation); 或 he has no bowel
movement for
the past few days. he has bouts of diarrhea.=he is
having trouble with
diarrhea.（他拉了一阵肚子。）
he can see trace of blood and pus or mucus in his
stool（或 bowel movement）
（大便时可看到血丝和粘膜。） 补充：he
got pissed on head 他很生气。（想想别人在你头
上撒尿是啥感觉？哈哈）
pee or poo ? 拉屎还是尿尿？这个也是个习惯用语啊
1.
禁忌语
a. 禁忌语与俚语
在英语是属于淫秽的语言(obscene language)， 也可以说是脏 话(dirty
words)。往往
是不便说出口的话，因而能说是隐语(shadow language)，
也可以说是“成为禁忌的语言”(tabooed words)。
其中，尤其不便说出口的话有fuck(性
交，干)，因为刚好是四个字母， 所以禁忌
语也可以说成four-letter
word(四字经)。此外，shit(大便)是四字，cock(阴茎) 也是四字，所以four-
letter word
有“不便开口的话”之意。
所谓禁忌语并不是现代才有，受迷信或传统支配的古代或原始民
族更多，
这是在某种环境或状况下，不便说出口的话。这也不限于淫秽的话，也有正相反的
情形。
例如在缅甸或朝鲜、大溪地等国家，国王或皇帝的名字是至高无上，不可以随便
说
出口的，日本到今天还是如此，外国的报纸会不客气地说emperor hirohito (
裕仁天皇)或
prince akihito(明仁皇太子)，但在日本的报纸上却不能写出名字。
并不限于未开发的国家
才有禁忌语，例如英国对有关宗教的语言－ god( 神 ) 、
devil(魔鬼)、christ(耶稣)等－
是除了认真谈话时以外，不可以随便说出口的。
如在开玩笑或轻松的谈话时说：
jesus christ
(耶稣基督)
一定会被认为你是不懂礼貌的人。
在骂“你是个畜生！”或“可恶的东西！”时，英国人会使用有关神的话。
for
christs sake! (为了基督！)
god damned!
(神啊，受诅咒吧！)
hell! (可恶的地狱！)
oh,
damn it! (诅咒它吧！)
这些话比我们骂“你这畜生！”更为严重，因为这不仅是“骂人”， 也是对神的 冒犯。
就广义而言，slang(俚语)也可以列入禁忌语，但有许多话除了高尚集会或正式场
合以
外是可以说出口的。 俚语(
slang)是最能生动表现出时代时代心声的语言，即便是有高深学
问的人，
在使用俚语能使谈话更有效时，往往也会使用。
不过在俚语中，属于cant或jargon
的话只有在特殊的团体－如学生之间或黑社会 之
间才能理解，一般是很少使用。
侮辱性地描述一个民族或国民，或阶级的俚语也是禁忌。 例如黑人会带着怨恨称
白人
是snake(蛇)，而白人则轻蔑黑人为nigger而不是称negro。 这些话在相同的
种族间也是
禁忌，更遑论向黑人或白人这样说，无疑是不要命的行为了。
此外，
关于性行为与排泄的 slang 是 tabooed 。 而本书就是试图要对这两种
tabooed words做详尽的介绍。
虽然是禁忌语，但因为能表达丰富的意思，又
颇有生动的气氛，还是常会使用到，而且
这些话“强有力的影响我们的思想”。
美国的著名诗人渥尔特?惠特曼是这样说的：
“应该多收集slang，不论是好的还是坏的。而坏的slang往往更美妙。”
b.
字典英语与生活英语之差异
凡是努力学过英语的人都有一个共同的缺点，那就是不会区别文章与口语。 美国
人批
评我们的英语是： classroom english (教室英语)
exaggerated english (夸张的英语)
而我们却不了解他们为什么会这样说。 虽然英美人士告诉我们说他们在日常生活 里不
使用big
words(难字)，但很难判断究竟哪些是big words。
一般而言，为表示同样的意思本来有很短的字，但我们喜欢用较长的字， 所以批
评说
“用太多的big words”或“夸张的英语”。
thats a
tough question.
这样的一句话，我们往往会说称thats a
difficult question。
一般认为出自盎格鲁撒克逊族的英语是大众化，而以拉丁语为源流的英语是 big
words，至于性行为或排泄用语也是相同的情形。
我们对这方面的英语亦是如此，对“艰难学术用语”熟知能详， 而一般英美大众
使用
的，或在小说中出现的简单形容却不了解。
例如，阴茎penis或阴户va
gina是属于拉丁语系的“有教养的英语”，有关这些字我们
都知道。可是关于阴茎使用cock或d
ick等字，在小说中更常使用，而且， 有不知道vagina
的英美人，而不知道cunt、pus
sy或crack意思的英美人则无。当然，在字典上也许能查到
penis或vagina，只是往往
没有代表这种意思的slang。一想到后者的使用更为“活生生”，
并且在英美的使用度极为频繁时，
不能不对 我们字典编汇的方式产生怀疑。 以下首先介绍
我们字典上的“艰难高级字”。
penis (阴茎)
testicles (睾丸)
semen
(精液)
erection (勃起)
ejaculation
(射精)
scrotum (阴囊)
vagina (阴户)
urethra (尿道)
copulation (性交)
cohabitation (同居)
fornication
(通奸、婚外性交)
urination (排尿)
defecation (排便)
feces (排泄物)
以上这些字在英美人眼里看来，会感觉到“太长”或“听来不顺”、“矫情”等。
vagina(阴
户)等虽然是短的字，但和前面提到的cunt(阴户)比较，有“矫情、
装模作样”的感觉。况
且在平常的谈话中，绝不会使用defecation
表示“小便”，只有在医学论文才使用得上。其
中，只有penis会在小说中出现，除此之外仅用于
“高级文章”。 在小说中描述“性交”时
虽然会有
he had sex
with mary.
但绝不会说：
he copulated
mary.
在字典里虽然会出现有sexual
intercourse“性交”，但会话中不会说：
will you
have sexual intercourse with me?
率直的说法充其量是：
will you sleep with me?
(“和我上床好不好？”等程度的表达)。
也从来没有听过小便时说urination，常听到的是piss。大便是shit，绝不是象字
典上写的defecate或have a bowel movement。笔者在学生时代也曾拼命地背过英
语
辞典上的这些字，但后来发现完全派不上用场。
但是，在我国也会避免直接形容说“我想去大便”，而改说“厕所在哪里？ ”或
洗手间
在哪里？”，当然英语也会绕圈说：
may i wash hands?
(我可以去洗手吗？)
在这里要说明的是，在至友或男人之间说这样的行为时，不说
defecate ， 而说
shit。
同样地面对面地谈性行为时，还是会绕着弯说：
lets go to bed.
一般人通常不会直接对女性说lets have sex. 可是男人之间的谈话，
或有女性
在场，而且是非正式的集会中，想说“和玛丽有了吗？”时，就说：
he had sex with mary.
而不会说成he had
copulation with mary. 这就是笔者特别要强调的地方。
现在针对“迂回的说法”再举几个实例说明。
十九世纪后期，清教徒在美国还有势力的时期，“脚”leg或“胸”breast都成为
不可
使用的字，就是连鸡脚或鸡胸也不可以。这样的结果，鸡的“胸脯肉”就成 为“白肉”white
meat，“脚肉”就被成为“黑肉”dark meat。即使是“雄鹿”
buck，“公猪”boar，“雌犬”
bitch，“种马”stallion等在当时也列为禁忌。
在今天，“雄鸡”cock一字正如后面会谈到的仍是禁忌字， 这是因为另外还有属
于禁
忌的意思。而在那时，仅因为是“雄”或“雌”，就成为不可使用的对象。
“公牛”是bull，
但因为是要“传种的公牛”， 所以十九世纪的清教徒将其成为 he-cow。
cow是“母牛”，但
大概是又成为对牛的一般总称，所以才可以使用吧。虽然同样是“公牛”，但ox
的“粗犷”
之意强过“性”的印象，因此将bull 特意改说成seed-
ox(种公牛)。这样说来，似乎把目的
说得更清楚，但seed的字义是“
植物种子”的语感较强，大概因此而被认为seed-ox比bull
有清洁感吧。
关于“方便”也有极其繁多的婉转说法。
当时对这种毫无意义的事也列为禁忌字，但是到今天， 对于女性“怀孕”也绝不
可以
说pregnant这个字。而应该绕着弯子说：
she is
expecting. (她在“待产”中。)
she is in a
delicate condition. (她正“怀孕中”。)
she is
well-along. (她“心满意足”。)
she is about to
have a blessed event. (她不久会有“喜事”。)
she is
about to be in a family way.(她不久就要走向“家庭之路”。)
我们也会说“她有喜了”。可见在形容微妙(delicate)的事情时， 不问中外都会
采用拐弯抹角的说法。