1英亩-文明美德

Chapter 1 Oil and Gas Fields
第1章 油气田

1.1 An Introduction to Oil and Gas Production
1.1石油和天然气生产的介绍

The complex nature of wellstreams is responsible for the complex processing of the produced fluids (gas, oil，water,
and solids). The hydrocarbon portion must be separated into products that can be stored andor transported. The
nonhydrocarbon contaminants must be removed as much as feasible to meet storage, transport, reinjection, and disposal
specifications. Ultimate disposal of the various waste streams depends on factors such as the location of the field and the
applicable environmental regulations. The overriding criterion for product selection, construction, and operation decisions
is economics.
油气井井流的复杂性质，决定了所产流体(气、油、水和固 体)的加工十分复杂。必须分出井流中的烃类，使之
成为能储存和或能输送的各种产品;必须尽可能地脱 除井流中的非烃杂质，以满足储存、输送、回注和排放的规范。
各类废弃物的最终处置取决于各种因素， 如油气田所处地域和所采用的环保规定等。经济性是决定油气田产品设计、
建筑和操作决策的最重要准则 。

Fig. 1-1 is a comprehensive picture of the individual unit operations carried out in field processing. All the various
modules shown will not all be present in every system. Furthermore, the modules used in a given application may not be
arranged in the exact sequence shown, although the sequence is，in general, correct. The selection and sequencing of
modules is determined during the design phase of field development.
图1-1表示在矿场进行的各种单元操作的综合图。在各系统内不一定有图1-- }所示的全部操作模块。尽管 图中
所示的加工顺序通常是正确的，但在某一特定使用情况下，模块的布置可能会与图中所示的顺序不同 。在油气田开
发设计阶段确定模块的选择和排列顺序。

As shown in Fig. 1-1，the individual phases (gas，liquid hydrocarbon, liquid water, and solids) should be separated from
each other as early as practical. Individual streams can then be treated with less technical difficulty and more economically.
Hartley and Bin Jadid (1989) illustrate how lab and field tests performed before construction can identify and minimize
future production and processing problems such as scaling, foaming, emulsion formation, wax deposition, and hydrate
formation. Processing of the separated streams is now reviewed briefly because many of the individual unit operations are
discussed in detail in subsequent chapters. < br>如图1-1所示，应尽早将各股流体(气、液态烃、液态水和固体)分离。这样，单独处理各股流体时，技 术难度
较小，也较经济。Hartley和Bin Jadid (19$$9阐明了在建设前进行的室内 和现场试验可以发现并减少将来在生产和加
工中可能出现的问题，如结垢、发泡、形成乳状液、结蜡以及 生成水合物等,现在简要介绍被分离的各股流体的加工，
在后续章节中将详细讨论其中的许多单元操作。

1 .1 .1 Gas Processing
1 .1 .1气体加工

As shown in Fig. 1-1，gas processing begins with treating, if necessary, to remove the acid gases- hydrogen sulfide and
carbon dioxide. Both gases are very corrosive when liquid water is present and hydrogen sulfide is most toxic.
Environmental regulations almost always prohibit the release of significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide to the
surroundings. Conversion to elemental sulfur is becoming increasingly necessary.
如图1-Z所示，气体加工(若需要)从脱除酸 气(H
2
S和CO
2
)开始。当存在液态水时，这两种气体有极强的腐蚀性,
而且H
2
S极具毒性。环保法规几乎都禁止向周围环境排放大量H
2
S，而且正愈来愈多地要求将H
2
S转变为元素硫。

Gas sweetening usually uses aqueous solutions of various chemicals. Therefore, sweetening will precede dehydration.
Dehydration is often necessary to prevent the formation of gas hydrates, which may plug high- pressure processing
equipment or pipelines at high pressure and at temperatures considerably higher than 32°F (0°C).
天然气脱酸气常使用各种化学剂的水溶液，因而 脱酸气应在气体脱水之前进行。为防止生成气体水合物，常需
进行脱水。在高压和比32°F(0℃)高 的温度下，水合物可能堵塞高压工艺设备和管线。

Gas that contains considerable amounts of liquefiable hydrocarbons (ethane or propane and heavier) can produce
condensate upon compressing or cooling. The condensate may cause difficulty in pipelining or subsequent processing.
Field processing to remove these natural-gas liquids ( NGL ) , sometimes referred to simply as condensate, may be
economical or may be required to meet a hydrocarbon dew-point specification. In remote locations such processing is
generally avoided if possible. Recovered condensate may, in turn, have to be stabilized by removing dissolved gaseous
components to obtain a transportable product.
含有大量可液化烃类(C
2
+
或C
3
+
)的气体，在压缩或冷却时一可能产生凝析油。凝析油会给管输和后续加一带来
困难。在矿 场脱除这些天然气液体(NGL,有时简称为凝析油)可能是经济的，或为满足烃露点规定所必需的。在边远地区应尽一量避免脱除凝析油的工作。回收的凝析油必须进行稳定，脱除溶解气组分，以获得可输送的产品。

1 .1 .2 Oil Processing
1 .1 .2原油加工

After free water removal, produced oil often contains excessive residual emulsified water。 ]. Treating, also called
dehydration, is required to reduce the water content to a value acceptable for transportation or sales. Dehydration should
be accomplished using the most economic combination of four factors or techniques;namely, residence time, chemical
addition, heat, and electrostatic fields. Dilution water must occasionally be added to reduce the salt content of the residual
emulsion (i. e. , the sales crude oil) to a suitably low level. In the United States，desalting is usually performed in the
refinery；overseas，desalting is sometimes performed in the field.
脱除游离水后，生产的原油内常含有过量的残余乳 化水。含有过量残余乳化水的原油需要进行处理(也称脱水)，
将水含量降至运输和销售允许的限度内。 可应用四种技术的最经济组合实施脱水，即停留时间、化学添加剂、加热
和静电场。有时还必须掺人稀释 水，将残余乳状液(即销售原油)内的盐含量降低至合理的低浓度。美国，脱盐常在
炼厂进行；美国以外 地区，脱盐有时在矿场进行。

Hydrogen sulfide in crude oil is limited to reduce handling and transportation difficulties because of its extreme
toxicity and corrosiveness. Gas stripping or heating is usually used for hydrogen sulfide removal or sweetening as is
discussed latterly.
由于H
2
S具有剧毒和腐蚀性，故应限制原油内H
2
S的含量，以降低原油装卸、沛在和输送过程的困难。如在
后续内容中讨论的那样，常用气提 或加热方法脱除原油内的H
2
S，或使其“甜化”。

Crude oil stabilization refers to lowering the vapor pressure to a value that will allow safe handling and transport.
Vapor pressure control is obtained by stage separation, reboiled distillation, or a combination of the two. During
stabilization some of the more volatile hydrocarbons are removed as vapor and this gas phase entrains hydrogen sulfide
and other volatile sulfur compounds from the sour crude oil. Additional sweetening may not be required.
原 油稳定是指将蒸气压降低至某一数值，在该蒸气压下原油可安全地装卸、储存和运输。多级分离、再沸蒸
馏或多级分离与再沸蒸馏相结合，来控制原油蒸气压。在稳定过程中，某些挥发性强的烃类成为蒸气从原油内分出 ，
这种烃类气体还从酸性原油内带出H
2
S和其他挥发性强的硫化物。原油也可能不需 要专门的脱硫或“甜化”处理。

1. 2 Brief Description of Crude Oil Surface Treatment
1. 2原油地面处理简介

Well fluids are often a complex mixture of liquid hydrocarbons, gas, and some impurities. It is necessary to remove
the gas and some impurities from the liquid hydrocarbons before they are stored, transported, and sold. Liquid
hydrocarbons and objectionable impurities must also be removed from natural gas before the gas goes to a sales line.
Impurities that might be found in some well streams are hydrogen sulfide， carbon dioxide free water, water vapor,
mercaptans, nitrogen,helium,and solids. Nearly all of site impurities cause various types of operating problems.
井流通常是液态烃、气体和某些杂质的复杂混合物。在液 态烃储存、输送和销售前，必须从浪态烃中脱除气体
和某些杂质。气体进人销售管道前，也必须从天然气 中脱除液态烃和有害杂质.在某些并流中，可能存在的杂质是硫
化氢、二氧化碳、游离水、水蒸气、硫醇 、氮、氦和固体杂质。几乎所有的杂质都会引起各种操作问题。

The separation of natural gas,liquid hydrocarbons, and impurities is accomplished by various field- processing
methods,depending upon the composition of the well stream and the desired end product. Those methods include time,
chemicals, gravity,heat,chemicals or electrical processes, and combinations of these.
根据井流的组成和要求的终端产品，可采用各种现场加工方法实现天然气、液态烃和杂质的分离。这些方 法包
括时间、化学药品、重力、热、机械或电加工，以及上述方法的综合运用。

1 .2 .1 Separators
1 .2 .1分离器

Separation of well-stream gas from free liquids is the most common and simplest form of field processing. The
equipment most widely used for this type of processing is referred to as a separator. The separation of natural gas from
liquids andor impurities m a separator combines gravity, time,mechanical processes, and occasionally chemicals.
液体与井流气的分离是现场加工最普遍和最简单 的方式。这类加工中最常用的设备称为分离器。在分离器内，
从液体和或杂质中分出天然气时可综合使用 重力、时间和机械方法，偶尔也采用化学药剂。

The size of the separator is dependent upon rate of flow of the natural ^as andor liquids going in the vessel. The
operating pressure of the vessel is dependent upon the pressure of the gas sales line, the flowing pressure of the well,and
operating pressure desired by the lease operator.
分离器的大 小取决于进人分离器的天然气流量和或液体流量。容器的操作压力取决于气体销售管线的压力、
井的流动 压力和矿场操作人员要求的操作压力。

Separators are built in various designs, such as vertical,horizontal and spherical. The internals of the vessel. to aid in
the mechanical separation of the gas and liquids, are of a special design,depending upon the manufacture. Although most
separators are two-phase in design separating the gas and liquids, they can be built three-phase lo separate natural gas,
liquid hydrocarbons,and free water(Fig. 1-2).
分离器有各种不同设计，如立式、卧式和球形分离器。促进气液 机械分离的容器内部构件是由制造商专门设计
的。尽管设计中多数分离器只分离气液两相，但能制造分离 天然气、液态烃和游离水的三相分离器(图1-2)。

1 .2 .2 Oil Treating
1 .2 .2原油处理

When crude oil is produced, various amounts of gas, water,and other impurities are mixed with the oil. Some of this
mixture comes as free oil,some as free water, and some as a homogeneous mixture known as an emulsion. The gas ,water,
and other impurities (known as basic sediment and water) must be removed before selling the oil. This separation process
is called oil treating. 采出的原油会混有不同数量的气、水和其他杂质。这种混合物中有些为原油，有些为游离水，有些为被称作乳
状液的均匀混合物。原油销售前必须脱除气体、水和其他杂质(称为底部沉积物和水)。这种分离过程称 为原油处理。

Treating systems are important parts of lease equipment. Experience in a particular field or area is valuable in
determining the best equipment for the application.
处理系统是矿场设备的重要组成部分。在确定原油的最佳处理设备时是有 价值的，在特定油田和地区的经验十
分重要。
In selecting a treating system, a number of factors should be considered to determine the most desirable method of
treating the crude oil to pipeline requirements. Some of these factors are:
为了确定 原油的最佳处理方法，使之满足管输要求，在选择处理系统时应考虑许多因素。其中的一些因素是：

(1) Tightness of emulsion.
（1）乳液的牢固程度。

(2) Specific gravity of the oil and produced water.
（2）油和采出水的相对密度。

(3) Corrosiveness of the oil ,gas,and produced water.
（3）油，气，和采出水的腐蚀性。

(4) Scaling tendencies of the produced water.
（4）采出水的结垢趋势。

(5) Quantity of fluid to be treated and percent of water in the fluid.
（5）需处理的流体数量和流体内的水含量。

(6) Availability of sales line for the gas.
（6）是否有气体销售管线。

(7) Desirable operating pressure for the equipment.
（7）设备所需的操作压力。

(8) Paraffin-forming tendencies of the crude oil.
（8）原油的结蜡倾向。

Oil-field emulsions are usually of the water-in-oil type;however, a few of the emulsions are oil-in-water type and are
called reverse emulsions. Emulsions are complex and each should be considered individually.
油田乳状液通常为油包水型，个别情况为水包油型，并称为反相乳状液 。乳状液非常复杂，对每一种乳状液都
应单独考虑。

In order to break a crude oil emulsion and obtain clean oil, it is necessary to displace the emulsifier and its film. This
brings about the coalescence of droplets of water and furnishes a means and time period of undisturbed settling of the
coalesced water drops. There are several methods used in conjunction with one another to “ treat” an oil emulsion.
为使原油乳状液破乳并得到净化油，需要一置换 乳化剂及其薄膜。这样可促使水摘聚结、并并为聚结水滴提供
无干扰的沉降时间和沉降方法。处理原油乳 状液有多种彼此组合的方法。

1 .2 .5 Vertical Treaters
1 .2 .5立式处理器

The most commonly used single-well lease treater is the vertical treater as shown in Fig. 1-5. Flow enters the top of
the treater into a gas separation section. Care must be exercised to size this section so that it has adequate dimensions to

separate the gas from the inlet flow. If the treater is located downstream of a separator, this chamber can be very small.
The gas separation section should have an inlet diverter and a mist extractor.
图1-5所示的立式处理器是最 常用的矿场单井处理器。井流进入处理器顶部的气体分离段。在确定该段尺寸时，
应使其有有足够的空间 寸来从井流中分离出气体。如果处理器位于分离器下游，气体分离段可以很小。气体分离段
应有一个入口 分流器和捕雾器。

The liquids flow through a downcomer to the base of the treater. which serves as a free-water knockout section. If the
treater is located downstream of a free-water knockout , the bottom section can be very small. If the total wollstream is to
be treated this section should be sized for 3 to 5 minutes retention time for both the oil and the water to allow the free
water to settle out. This will minimize the amount of fuel gas needed to heat the liquid stream rising through the heating
section. The end of the downcomer should be slightly below the oil water interface to “water wash” the oil being treated.
This will assist in the coalescence of water droplets in the oil.
液体通过降液管流至处理器底部，该段为游离水分离段。如果处理器位于游离水分离器下游，则该段可以 很小。
如果要处理全部井流，以油、水在该段都停留3-5 min来确定该段的大小，以便游离水沉降 。分出游离水后，将减
少向上通过加热段液流所需的加热燃料气为了用水洗涤被处理的原油，降液管的底 端应略低于油水界面。水洗将促
进原油内水滴的聚结。

The oil and emulsion rises over the heater fire-tubes to a coalescing section where sufficient retention time is
provided to allow the small water particles in the oil continuous phase to coalesce and settle to the bottom.
原油及其乳状液上升，通过加热器火筒至聚结段。聚结段可提供足够的 停留时间，便连续相原油内的水滴聚结
并沉降至处理器底部

Treated oil flows out the oil outlet. Any gas, flashed from the oil due to heating, flows through the equalizing line to
the gas space above. Oil level is maintained by pneumatic or lever operated dump valves. Oil-water interface is controlled
by an interface controller, or an adjustable external water leg.
处理后的原油从油出口流出。由于加热，从原油内闪蒸 出的气体通过平衡管线流入处理器顶端的气体空间。
气动或连杆操作的出油阀可控制油面液位，由界面控 制器或外部可调出水管线控制油水界面。

The detailed design of the treater, including the design of internals (many features of which are patented) should be
the responsibility of the equipment supplier.
处理器及其内部构件(构件的许多特点都有相应专利)的详细设计应由设备供应商负责。


1.2.6 Stabilization and Sweetening of Crude Oil
1.2.6原油的稳定和脱酸

Dissolved gas in the wellhead crude oil must be removed to meet pipeline, storage, or tanker Reid vapor pressure(RVP)
specifications . When the oil is essentially free of dissolved natural gas, or “dead”then it can be stored in a vented tank at
atmospheric pressure subject, of course, to emission regulations. The presence of the most volatile hydrocarbons
( C1 ,C2,C3,etc. ) increases the RVP dramatically. Removal of these dissolved natural-gas components is called crude oil
stabilization.
必须脱去井口原油内的溶解气，以满足管道、储存 或油轮运输对雷特蒸气压的技术规定。只有当原油内基本上
没有溶解天然气(或称“死油”)并满足废气 排放规定时，才能储存在常压通风储罐内。原油内存在挥发性极强的组
分(C1，C2，C3，等)时， 将极大地增加雷特蒸气压。脱除这些溶解的天然气组分称为原油稳定。

The RVP is usually set in the range of 10 -12 psia,which generally yields a true vapor pressure (T V P )—o r,more
。
properly, a bubble point pressure at 100 F- of slightly higher value,13—15 psia. Other important specifications that must
be met are BS&W and H2S content. Hydrogen sulfide specifications are usually in the range of 10-60 ppm (Moins ,1980).
通常，设定的雷特蒸气压范围为14--12 psia，雷特蒸气压(RVP)一般比真实蒸气压（TVP，确切的说是144
0
F下

的泡点压力）略低，真实蒸气压约为13--15 psia。 对原油的其他重要规定还包括水和悬浮固体含量以及H
2
S含量。
对H
2S含量的规定范围常为10 -60 ppm（ Moins,1980 ）。

Often a considerable amount of gas is dissolved in crude oil. Hydrocarbons are usually worth more as liquid (i. e. , in
the crude oil phase than in the vapor or natural gas phase), even when associated gas is used for LNG[I8] or when the gas
is sold and condensate is extracted.
原油内常溶有相当数量的气体。液态烃类的价值一般较高(即烃类在原油内比 在蒸气或天然气内的价值高)，即
使是伴生气用作制造液化天然气，或从气体内回收凝析油、销售气体， 其价值也低于原油。

A second possible benefit of spiking crude oil with light hydrocarbons is the potential for increased price due to
increased API gravity. This increase is usually small, however—less than one degree API—and the price increase is also
modest, about 10 centsbbl per °API increase.
用轻烃掺入原油的另一好处是，由于API相对密度增加，可提高 原油售价。相对密度的增加一般很小，小于1
0
API，而价格也温和地增加。每增加1
0
API，每桶原油约增加10美分。

As previously discussed, sour crudes do contain sulfur compounds in general and hydrogen sulfide in particular,
Stabilization must also remove the volatile sulfur compounds to meet sales or transport specifications.
如前所述，酸性原油一般总含有硫化 物，特别是含有H
2
S。稳定处理时也必须脱除挥发性硫化物，以满足销售
和输送的技 术要求。

The economic goal of stabilization is to maximize stock-tank oil recovery while meet in vapor pressure and H
2
S
content specifications, as well as BS&W. Butanes increase the vapor pressure of crude oil considerably, since the true vapor
pressure of i-C
4
and n-C
4
are 72. 6 and 52.1 psia, respectively. Control of the butane content controls the RVP and TVP.
在满足蒸气压、H
2
S和 固体悬浮物及水含量的技术要求下，使矿场储罐原油收率最高是原油稳定的经济目的。
由于正、异丁烷的 绝对真实蒸气压分别为72. 6 psi和52.1psi，故丁烷对原油蒸气压的增加有重要影响。控制丁烷 含
量就控制了RVP和TVP。

The technical goal of stabilization is to remove C
1
, C
2
,and C
3
as completely as possible while leaving the maximum
amounts of C
4
(and C
5
and heavier) in the crude oil.
稳定的技术目的是尽可能地完全脱除C1，C2，和C3。并在原油内留下尽可 能多的C4，（以及C5和重于C5的
组分）。
Crude oil can be stabilized by passing it through a series of flash drums or vapor-liquid separator vessels at
successively lower pressures. Tray towers with reboilers , alternatively or in conjunction with separators, are also used,
though less often.
让原油通过一系列逐步降压的闪蒸罐或气一液分离器可以使原油稳定，也可以使用带重沸器的板式塔 或采用
板式塔与分离器结合的方式使原油稳定，但使用较少。

Stabilization can also sweeten the crude because the chief sulfur-containing or sour contaminant, H2S, has a boiling
point of -76. 5 T-intermediate to that of ethane and propane. Incidentally, dissolved radon gas will also be removed with
the light hydrocarbons. its boiling point is -79. 2 °F. Radon radioactivity must be considered very carefully.
由于主要的含硫或酸性杂质为H
2
S，它的沸点为一76. 5°F，介于乙烷和丙烷之间，故稳定过程也使原油脱酸。
顺便提及，氡的沸点为一79. 2
0
F，在稳定过程中溶解在原油中的氡气也会随轻烃一起从原油内脱除。必须十分谨慎
地对待 氡的放射性。

So-called sour crude oil contains H
2
S and other sulfur-containing compounds. Even small amounts of H
2
S make the
crude oil extremely toxic and corrosive. The other sulfur compounds are far less toxic and not so aggressively corrosive,
even though some have equally strong odors. The presence of liquid water exacerbates the corrosion a s does CO
2
.
Personnel safety and equipment protection require that H
2
S and (to a lesser extent) other sulfur compounds be removed.
所谓酸性原油，是指含有H
2
S和其他含硫化合物的原油。即使含少量硫化氢，也使原 油具有很强的毒性和腐蚀

性。尽管某些硫化物有与H
2
S相同的强烈气 味，但这些硫化物的毒性和腐蚀性远低于H
2
S。与CO
2
类似，液态水的< br>存在也会激化腐蚀。从人员安全和设备防护的角度来看，应脱除H
2
S，并在某种程度上 同时脱除其他硫化物。

1 .3 Treating Oil Field Emulsions
1. 3油田乳状液的处理

1 .3 .1 Theory o f Emulsions
1.3.1乳状液理论

An emulsion is a combination of two immiscible liquids, or liquids that do not mix together under normal conditions.
One of the liquids is spread out, or dispersed, throughout the other in the form of small droplets. These droplets can be of
all sizes, from fairly large to very small. Sometimes droplets are so small that more than fifty of them could be placed on
the head of a pin. A stable emulsion is an emulsion that w ill not break down without some form of treating.
乳状液是两种不相溶液体或在正 常条件下不能混合在一起的多种液体的混合物。其中，一种液体以小液珠形式
完全分散于另一种液体内。 这些液珠的粒径是各不相同的，从很大至非常细小。有时，液珠小至可在一枚大头针端
部放置50多个液 珠。

Three conditions are necessary for the formation of a stable emulsion.
稳定乳状液是一种不采用某种处理方法不能破乳的乳状液。形成稳定乳状液必须具备三个条件:
(1) The liquids must be immiscible.
（1）各液体必须是互不相溶的;

(2) There must be sufficient agitation to disperse one liquid as droplets in the other.
（2）需要有足够的搅动，使一种液体成为液珠分散于另一种液体内;

(3) There must be an emulsifying agent, or emulsifier, present.
（3）需要有乳化剂。

To form a stable emulsion of crude oil and water,an emulsifying agent must be present. Emulsifying agents commonly
found in petroleum emulsions include asphalt; resinous substances; oil soluble organic acids; and other finely divided
materials that are more soluble, wettable, or dispersable in oil than in water. Some finely divided solids are iron, zinc and
aluminum sulfates, calcium carbonate,silica,and iron sulfide. Each of these emulsifiers usually occurs as a film on the
surface of the dispersed droplets.
为形成原油和 水的稳定乳状液，必须要有一种乳化剂。在石油乳状液内发现的乳化刑通常包括沥青、树脂物质、
油溶性 有机酸以及那些更易溶解于油中、易为油所润湿或易在油中分散的细颗粒物质。某些细颗粒固体为铁、锌和
硫酸铝、碳酸钙、硅和硫化铁。上述每种乳化剂一般都会在分散液珠表面形成薄膜。

In an emulsion, the liquid that is broken up into droplets is known as the discontinuous, dispersed or internal phase.
The liquid that surrounds the droplets is known as the continuous or external phase. An emulsion of oil and water may
have either oil or water as the dispersed phase, depending on the characteristics of the emulsifying agent, but in most
cases it is the water that is dispersed as droplets in the oil. < br>乳状液内破碎为液珠的液体称为一作连续相，也称分散相或内相。液珠周围的液体称为连续相或外根据乳化 剂
的性质，油水乳状液内油或水均可成为分散相，但多数情况下水以水珠分散于油中。

An oil-water emulsion may contain from a trace to 90 percent or more water. Also, an emulsion may be tight ( difficult
to break) or loose ( easy to break ). Whether an emulsion is tight or loose depends on several factors, which include the
properties of the oil and water, the percentage of each found in the emulsion, and the type and amount of emulsifier
present.
油水 乳状液的水含量可从含微量水(痕迹)至90%或90%以上.乳状液可能很牢固(难于破乳)，也较疏松(易于 破乳)。
乳状液破乳的难易取决于若干因素，包括油水性质、乳状液内油和水的百分含量、乳状液内乳化 剂的类型和数量。

Occasionally emulsions produced from some fields are the reverse type in which the oil is the internal phase and is

dispersed as droplets in water. Sometimes, but very rarely oil is produced in a dual emulsion in which the dispersed phase
is droplets of oil-in water emulsion and the external phase is oil.
些油田偶尔会产生反相型乳状液，即油为内相并呈油珠分散于水中。在 极少数的情况下，原油以双重乳状液采
出，分散相是水包油型乳状液，外相为油。

In water-in -oil emulsion, there are two forces in direct opposition. One force is the film of emulsifying agent that
surrounds the water droplets. This force tends to prevent the droplets from merging together to form larger drops, even
when the droplets collide. The other force is the opposite tendency of water droplets to join together to form larger drops.
The larger drops yield to the force of gravity and settle out. Therefore. !o break down a petroleum emulsion ,the properties
of the emulsifying agent must be neutralized or destroyed so that the droplets of water may unite. Many procedures for
the neutralization and destruction of the emulsifying agent have been developed.
在油包水型乳状液内存在两种起相反作用 的力，一种力一与水珠周围的乳化剂薄膜有关，即使在水珠碰撞时，
它也有阻止水珠合并而形成大水珠的 趋势。另一种力是水珠有相互合并和形成大水珠的相反倾向。较大的水珠会在
重力作用下沉降出来，因而 要破坏石油乳状液，就必须抑制或破坏乳化剂的性质，使水珠合并。已经开发了许多抵
消和破坏乳化剂的 方法。

1 .3 .2 The Major Reasons for Dehydrating Crude Oil
1.3.2 原油脱水的主要原因
The worldwide crude oil production of about 60 million bpd is accompanied by at least as much water. In old
fields,water-oil ratios greater than 10 are not uncommon. Therefore, it is not a surprise that emulsion formation is the rule
rather than the exception. The salt content of the produced brine may range from practically zero to almost saturated. In
particular, dilute brines form emulsions with crude oil that can be very difficult to break (i. e. , resolve into separate oil and
water phases).
世界原油产量约为60×10
6
bpd，伴随而产出的水量至少不低于原油产量。在 老油田，水油比超过10者并不罕
见。可见产生乳状液是正常现象，而非特例。产出盐水内的盐含量范围 可能从零至几乎被盐饱和。由稀盐水和原油
形成的乳状液很难破乳（即很难分离为油、水两相）。
The major reasons for dehydrating and desalting crude oil are :
原油脱水脱盐的主要原因为：

(1) Crude oil purchasers specify maximum permissible contents of sediments and water, S&W, formerly called basic
sediment and water, BS&.W. Typically, limits vary from 0. 1—3 wt. :0. 1 % in cold climates, 0.5% in the Gulf coast and Texas,
and 3% for low gravity California crude.
（1）原油买方规定了最大允许沉积物和水的含量(S&W)，此含量以前被称为底部沉积物和水(BS & W)。典型的
限定范围为0.1%-3%(质量分数)，寒冷地区为0. 1%,(墨西哥)海湾地区和得克萨斯州为0.5%，加利福尼亚州的低相对
密度原油为3%。

(2) Crude oil is bought and sold on a °API gravity basis and high-gravity oils command higher prices. Water lowers
the °API gravity and reduces the selling price of oil.
（2）买卖原油 以
0
API相对密度为基准，
0
API相对密度高的原油能得到较高的售价。 原油内的水降低了
0
API相
对密度，因而降低了原油的售价。

(3) Shipping emulsified oil wastes costly transportation capacities occupied by valueless water ( i. e. , S&.W).
（3）由于无用的水占有体积，输送乳化原油浪费了宝贵的输送能力。

(4) The viscosity of crude oil increases as the water content is increased. ( Adding 1 % more water (or S&-W) typically
produces a 2 % viscosity increase in a 30 °API crude and a 4% viscosity rise in a 15 °API crude.)
0
API相对密度为30的原油内 多增加1%的水，（4）随着水含量增加，原油猫度增大。其黏度一般会增大2%;
0
API
相对密度为15的原油的黏度约增大4%

(5) Mineral sails present in oilfield waters corrode production equipment, tank cars, pipelines and storage tanks.
（5）油田水内存在矿物盐，会腐蚀生产设备、铁路油槽车、管道和储罐。

(6) Refining of water-bearing crude can cause severe corrosion and plugging problems. Distillation of crude containing
water-borne inorganic salts contributes to corrosion and fouling of refining equipment. Under some circumstances
chlorides can hydrolyze to HC1,which is extremely corrosive.
（6）炼制含水原油会引起严重的腐蚀和堵塞问题。蒸馏乳化水内含无机盐类的原油将导致炼制设备的腐 蚀和
污垢。在某些环境下，氯化物会水解为盐酸，它的腐蚀性极强。


1 .3 .3 Treating Methods
1 .3 .3处理方法

Any method of removing water, salt, sand, sediments and other impurities from crude oil is called oil treating.
Oil-treating methods have one common goal, namely, to provide a suitable environment for gravity to separate the brine
from the crude. 从原油内脱除水、盐、砂、沉积物和其他杂质的任何方法都被称为原 油处理。各种原油处理方法具
有共性，即为重力沉降提供良好氛围，使盐水从原油内分出。

The following are common treating methods:
以下为常用的处理方法:

(1) Settling or providing low velocity ( reduced turbulence and increased residence time to allow free water to
separate).
（1）沉降或提供较低流速（减少湍流，并增加停留时间，允许分开游离水）。

(2) Degassing or separating the gas from the liquid as it is released in the production gas bubbles
severely impede the settling of water drops. Many reports have documented in detail the benefits of degassing prior to
emulsion treating.
（2）当生产设备内产生气体时，应使气体和液体分离(或称脱气)。上升的气 泡会极力阻止水珠的沉降。许多报
道详细证明了在处理乳状液前脱气的好处。

(3) Chemical treating or adding emulsion breakers or demulsifiers.
（3）化学处理或添加破乳剂。

(4) Washing or providing a continuous-phase water wash.
（4）水洗或提供连续相水洗。

(5) Heating to reduce oil viscosity and accelerate separation.
（5）加热以降低油粘度和并加速分离。

(6) Electrical treating (i. e ., applying AC andor DC electric fields).
（6）电处理（即，使用交流和或直流电场）。

(7) Mechanical treating or providing increased surface area to promote drop coalescence.
（7）机械处理或增大水珠的表面积，以促进液滴聚结。

In addition，field treating can accomplish mist elimination and removal of sand， sludge, and other solids. Of course，
successful treating implies that the crude oil meets pipeline or refining specifications—usually 0. 1% ~ 1.0% S&W. In

addition， the treated brine or produced water must be essentially oil-free to satisfy environmental discharge regulations
(often 15 —40 ppm) or to prevent reinjection problems such as scale formation andor reservoir plugging. Note that the
oil-in-water environmental regulation is far m ore severe than the water-in-oil transportsales specification.
此外，现场处理能除去液 雾、砂、淤泥和其他杂质。显然，对乳状液的成功处理可使原油满足管输或炼制
的规范—通常要求沉积物 和水的质量分数为。0.1%-1.0%。另外，处理后的盐水或采出水必须基本上不含油以满足向
环境 排放的规定(常为15--40 ppm)，或防止诸如生成水垢和或堵塞油藏等采出水回注问题。注意:水包油 乳状液的环
境排放规定比油包水乳状液的管输销售规范严格得多。

1. 4 Overview of Gas-handling Facilities
1. 4气体处理设备概论

The objective of a gas-handling facility is to separate natural gas, condensate, or oil and water from a gas-producing
well and condition these fluids for sales or disposal. This volume focuses primarily on conditioning natural gas for sales.
气体处理设备用于从气井井流中分离天然气、凝析液或油和水，并使这些流体符合销售或排放的要求。本 节重
点讨论如何使天然气的品质符合销售的要求。

Fig. 1-6 is a block diagram of a production facility that is primarily designed to handle gas wells. The well flow stream
may require heating prior to initial separation. Since most gas wells flow at high pressure, a choke is installed to control the
flow . When the flow stream is choked, the gas expands and its temperature decreases. If the temperature gets lo w
enough, hydrates (a solid crystalline - like “ice” ，matter) w ill form. This could lead to plugging, so the gas may have to
be heated before it can be choked to separator pressure. Low-temperature exchange ( L T X ) units and indirect fired
heaters are commonly used to keep the well stream from plugging with hydrates.
图1-6所示为用于处理气井气的生产设备方 框图。在一级分离前井流可能需要加热。由于多数气井的压力很高，
故用节流件来控制气体流量。气体节 流时其体积膨胀，气体温度下降。如果节流后气体温度太低，将生成水合物(一
种固态晶体状的似“冰” 物质)。由于形成的水合物会引起堵塞，故气体节流至分离压力前可能需要加热。低温换热
装置(LTX )和间接式加热炉常用于防止井流被水合物堵塞。
Gas transmission companies require that impurities be removed from gas the purchase. They recognize the need for
removal for the efficient operation of their pipelines and their customers gas-burning equipment. Consequently, contracts
for the sale of gas to transmission companies always contain provisions regarding the quality of the gas that is delivered to
them,and periodic tests are made to ascertain that requirements are being fulfilled by the seller.
输气公司要求购买的是除去杂质 的气体，以使其输气管道及用户的燃烧设备高效工作。因此，输气公司的购气
合同中总是包含对气体品质 的规定，并进行定期试验以确定卖方的气体是否满足对气体品质的要求。

Acid gases, usually hydrogen sulfide ( H
2
S) and carbon dioxide ( CO
2
) ,are impurities that are frequently found in
natural gas and may have to be removed. Both can be very corrosive, with CO
2
forming carbonic acid in the presence of
water and H
2
S potentially causing hydrogen embrittlement of steel. In addition, H
2
S is extremely toxic at very low
concentrations. When the gas is sold， the purchaser specifies the maximum allowable concentration of C()2 and H 2S. A
normal limit for CO 2 is between 2 and 4 volume percent, while H
2
S is normally limited to 14 grain per 100 standard cubic
feet (scf) or 4 ppm by volume.
酸气常指硫化氢( H
2
S)和二氧化碳( CO
2)，是天然气内经常存在并.且必须脱除的杂质。这两种气体有很强的腐蚀
性，存在游离水时CO< br>2
会生成碳酸，而H
2
S则可能引起钢的氢脆。此外，即使H
2
S浓度很低.它也具有极强的毒性。
在气体销售时，买方会规定CO
2
和H
2
S的最大允许浓度。CO
2
的体积分数常限定在2%--4%，H
2
S常限定为0.25 gr100
scf，或H
2
S的体积分数小于410
6
。

Another common impurity of natural gas is nitrogen. Since nitrogen has essentially no calorific value, it lowers the
heating value of gas. Gas purchasers may set a minimum limit of heating value (normally approximately 950 BTUscf). In
some cases it may be necessary to remove the nitrogen to satisfy this requirement. This is done in very low temperature
plants or with permeable membranes.
氮气是天然气内常见的另一种杂质。氮气本质上没有热 值，但它会降低含氮天然气的热值。气体买方可规定气
体的最低热值(常为950 BTUscf ) 有些情况下可能必须脱氮，以满足对热值的要求。脱氮常在低温厂内进行，或用
渗滤膜脱氮。

Natural gas produced from a well is usually saturated with water vapor. Most gas treating processes also leave the gas
saturated with water vapor. The water vapor itself is not objectionable, but the liquid or solid phase of water that may
occur when the gas is compressed or cooled is very troublesome. Liquid water accelerates corrosion of pipelines and other
equipment solid hydrates that can form when liquid water is present plug valves, fittings，and sometimes the pipeline
itself liquid water accumulates in low points of pipeline，reducing the capacity of the lines. Removal of the water vapor by

dehydration eliminates these possible difficulties and is normally required by gas sales agreements. When gas is
dehydrated its dewpoint (the temperature at which water will condense from the gas) is lowered.
由气井生产的天然气常 被水蒸气所饱和。从多数气体处理工艺单元流出的气体也为水蒸气所饱和。水蒸气本身
无害，但压缩或冷 却气体时产生的液态积存在管道或固态水常给气体处理带来麻烦。液态水会加速管道和其他设备
的腐蚀; 存在液态水时可能生成水合物，会堵塞阀、管件甚至管道;液态水积存在管道低洼处会降低管道的输送能力。气体销售合同中常要求脱去水蒸气，以消除上述可能发生的故障。气体脱水后，其露点(气体内水凝析时的温 度)降
低。

A typical dehydration specification in the U. S. Gulf Coast is 7 lb of water vapor per MMscf of gas (7 lbMMscf). This
gives a dew point of around 32
0
F for 1 000 psi gas. In the northern areas of the U.S. and Canada the gas contracts require
lower dew points or lower water vapor concentrations in the gas. Water vapor concentrations of 2 -- 4 lbMMscf are
common. If the gas is to be processed at very low temperatures, as in a cryogenic gas plant ,water vapor removal down to
1 ppm may be required.
在美国海湾地区，典型的脱水技术规定为7 1bMMscf，相当于1000 psi压力下气体的露点约为32
0
F。在美国北
部地区和加拿大，气体合同中会要求 更低的露点，或要求气体内水蒸气浓度更低。水蒸气浓度常为2--4 IbMMacf。
若需要在很低 的温度下加工气体，如需在气体深冷处理厂加工气体，则可能需要将水蒸气脱至110
6
以下。

1 .5 The Trays and Packing
1.5 塔板和填料

The number of actual equilibrium stages determines the number of flashes that will occur. The more stages, the more
complete the split , but the taller and more costly the tower. Most condensate stabilizers will normally contain
approximately five theoretical stages. In a refluxed tower, the section above the feed is known as the rectification section，
while the section below the feed is known as the stripping section. The rectification section normally contains about two
equilibrium stages above the feed and the stripping section normally contains three equilibrium stages.
真实平衡级数确定了发 生闪蒸的次数。级数愈多，物料的分离愈完善，但会使塔高增加，塔的投资增大。多数
凝析液稳定塔一般 有5个理论级数。在带有回流的塔内，进料以上部分称精馏段，进料以下部分称提馏段。进料板
以上的精 馏段一般含2个平衡级，而提馏段一般含3个平衡级。

Theoretical stages within a tower are provided by actual stage devices (typically either trays or packings). The actual
diameter and height of the tower can be derived using manufacturer’s data for the particular device. The height of the
tower is a function of the number of theoretical stages and of the efficiency of the actual stages. The diameter of the
tower is a function of the hydraulic capacity of the actual stages.
塔内的理 论级由真实级设备提供(一般为塔板或填料)。参照制造商为特定装置提供的数据，可得到塔的真实直
径 和塔高。塔高是理论级数和真实级效率的函数。塔的直径是真实级水力性能的函数。

1 .5 .1 Trays
1 .5 .1塔板

For most trays, liquid flows across an “ active area” of the tray and then into a “downcomer” to the next tray
below, etc. Inlet andor outlet weirs control the liquid distribution across the tray. Vapor flows up the tower and passes
through the tray active area, bubbling up through (and thus contacting) the liquid flowing across the tray. The vapor
distribution is controlled by (1) perforations in the tray deck (sieve trays), (2) bubble caps (bubble cap trays), or (3) valves
(valve trays).
对多数塔板来说，液体流过塔板的“活性面积”后，由降液 管流至下一层塔板，并依此类推.人日和或出口堰
板控制着横向流经塔板的液体分布。蒸气沿塔向上流动 并通过塔板的活性面积，它以鼓泡方式通过流经塔板的液层
(这样可使气液密切接触)。蒸气的分布由以 下方法控制:在塔板上开孔(筛板);泡罩(泡罩塔板);阀(阀板)。

Trays operate within a hydraulic envelope. At excessively high vapor rates, liquid is carried upward from one tray to
the next (essentially back-mixing the liquid phase in the tower). For valve trays and sieve trays, a capacity limit can be
reached at low vapor rates when liquid falls through the tray floor rather than being forced across the active area into the
downcomers. Because the liquid does not flow across the trays, it misses contact with the vapor, and the separation
efficiency drops dramatically.
塔板在水力包络线内工作。蒸气流量过大会将液体从下层塔板带至上层 塔板(液相在塔内返混)。对阀板和筛板，
在蒸气流量过低时会达到板的工作下限，此时液体不再横向流 经活性面积进人降液管，而是通过板底向下滴漏。由
于液体没有横向流过塔板，液体与蒸气没有接触，所 以使分离效率大大下降。

Trays are generally divided into four categories：sieve trays, valve trays, bubble cap trays, and high capacityhigh
efficiency trays.
塔板一般分为四类：筛塔板、阀板、泡罩塔板、高处理量高效率塔板。

1. 5. 1.1 Sieve Trays
1. 5. 1.1筛塔板

Sieve trays are the least expensive tray option. In sieve trays, vapor flowing up through the tower contacts the liquid
by passing through small perforations in the tray floor ( Fig. l-7b). Sieve trays rely on vapor velocity to exclude liquid from

falling through the perforations in the tray floor. If the vapor velocity is much lower than design liquid will begin to flow
through the perforations rather than into the downcomer. This condition is known as weeping. Where weeping is severe,
the equilibrium efficiency will be very low. For this reason，sieve trays have a very small turndown ratio.
筛板是塔板 中最便宜的。采用筛板时，向上流经塔的蒸气通过筛板上的小孔与液体接触（图1-7b）筛板依靠蒸
气 速度阻止塔板上的液体向下滴漏。若蒸气流速低于设计流速太多，液体将不再进人降液管，而是通过小孔向下滴< br>漏。这种工况称为漏液。漏液严重时会使平衡效率很低，因此筛板的流量调节比很小。

1. 5.1. 2 Valve Trays
1.5.1.2 阀板

Valve trays are essentially modified sieve trays. Like sieve trays, holes are punched in the tray floor. However，these
holes are much larger than those in sieve trays. Each of these holes is fitted with a device called a “ valve”. Vapor flowing
up through the tower contacts the liquid by passing through valves in the tray floor (Fig. l-7c). Valves can be fixed or
moving. Fixed valves are permanently open and operate as deflector plates for the vapor coming up through the holes in
the tray floor. For moving valves， vapor passing through the tray floor lifts the valves and contacts the liquid. Moving
valves come in a variety of designs, depending on the manufacturer and the application. At low vapor rates，valves will
close, helping to keep liquid from falling through the holes in the deck. At sufficiently low vapor rates, a valve tray will
begin to weep. That is, some liquid will leak through the valves rather than flowing to the tray downcomers. At very low
vapor rates，it is possible that all the liquid will fall through the valves and no liquid will reach the downcomers. This severe
weeping is known as “dumping”. At this point，the efficiency of the tray is nearly zero.
阀板基本上是改良的筛板。如筛板类似，阀板上开有孔 。然而，这些孔比筛板的孔大的多。每个孔都装有称为
“阀”的设备。塔内向上流动的蒸汽通过塔盘板上 的阀与液体接触（图1-7c）。阀门可以固定的或浮动的。固定式
阀是常开的，工作时它犹如通过塔板 孔向上流动的蒸气折流板。对于浮动阀，通过塔板的蒸气举升阀瓣并与液体接
触。根据制造商的不同和塔 的使用条件，浮动阀有各种设计。当蒸气流量较低时，阀处于关闭状态，防止液体通过
塔板上的孔向下滴 漏。当蒸气流量很低时，阀板将开始滴漏，即一些液体通过阀孔泄漏而不流向塔板的降液管。当
蒸气流量 极低时，液体可能全部通过阀门漏失，而不进人降液管。这种严重的液体泄漏称为“卸液”，此时塔板的
效率几乎为零。

1. 5.1. 3 Bubble Cap Trays
1. 5.1. 3汽泡罩板

In bubble cap trays, vapor flowing up through the tower contacts the liquid by passing through bubble caps (Fig. l-7a).
Each bubble cap assembly consists of a riser and a cap. The vapor rising through the column passes up through the riser in
the tray floor and then is turned downward to bubble into the liquid surrounding the cap. Because of their design，bubble
cap trays cannot weep. However bubble cap trays are also more expensive and have a lower capacityhigher pressure drop
than valve trays or sieve trays.
在泡罩塔中，沿着塔向上流动的蒸汽流 经泡罩与液体接触（图l-7a）。泡罩由一个立管（升气管）和一个帽组
成。沿着塔向上流动的蒸汽流 经安装在塔板上的立管，然后将将改变气流的方向，向下在泡罩四周的液层内鼓泡。
这样的设计可以使汽 泡罩塔不会发生滴漏。然而泡罩塔十分昂贵，与阀板或筛塔板相比其处理量低压力降高。

1. 5.1. 4 High CapacityHigh Efficiency Trays
1. 5.1. 4高容量高效率塔板

High capacityhigh efficiency trays have valves or sieve holes or both. They typically achieve higher efficiencies and
capacities by taking advantage of the active area under the downcomer. At this time, each of the major vendors has its
own version of these trays, and the designs are proprietary.
高容量高效率塔板有阀孔或筛孔或两者都有。这些塔板充分利用了降液管下方的活性面积，可以获得高的 效
率和处理量。目前，各主要的供应商都有其自己的此类塔板，这些塔板的设计具有专利。

1 5.2 Packing
5.2 1填料

Packing typically comes in two types：random and structured.
填料通常分为两类：随机填料和规整填料。

Liquid distribution in a packed bed is a function of the internal vaporliquid traffic,type of packing employed, and the
quality of the liquid distributors mounted above the packed bed. Vapor distribution controlled by the internal vaporliquid
traffic, by the of packing employed, and by the quality of the vapor distributors located below the packed beds.
在填料床内，液体的分布取决于气液在填料内的流动情况、所用填料类型以及在填料床上方安装的液体分配器的质量。塔内蒸气的分布取决于气液在填料内的流动情况、所用填料类型以及安装在填料床下方蒸气分配器的 质量。

Packing material can be plastic,metal,or g efficiencies can be expressed as HETP (height equivalent to a
theoretical plate.
填料的材料有塑料、金属或陶瓷。填料的效率表示为HETP，即理论塔板等效高度。

1.5.2.1 Random Packing
1.5.2.1随机填料

A bed of random packing typically consists of a bed support (typical a gas injection support plate) upon which pieces
of packing material are randomly arranged ( they are poured or dumped onto this support plate). Bed limiters, or
hold-downs, are sometimes set above random beds to prevent the pieces of packing from migrating or entraining upward.
Random packing comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. For given shape (design) of packing, small sizes have higher
efficiencies and lower capacities than large sizes.
随机填料床包括床支撑(一般为能注人气体的支撑板)和在支撑上随机堆放的填料（常 将填料倒在该支撑板上）。
随机填料床上方有时安装有压紧装置，防止填料移动或被向上气流携带。随机 填料有各种形状和大小。对于给定形
状(设计)的填料，小填料的效率比大填料高，但处理量低。

Fig. 1-8 shows a variety of random packing designs. An early design is known as a Raschig ring. Raschig rings are short
sections of tubing and are low-capacity, low- efficiency,high-pressure drop devices. Today’s industry standard is the slotted
metal (Pall) ring. A packed bed made of 1 in slotted metal rings will have a higher mass transfer efficiency and a higher
capacity than will a bed of 1 in Raschig rings. The HETP for a 2 in slotted metal ring in a condensate stabilizer is about 36 in.
This is slightly more than a typical tray design, which would require 34 in (1.4 trays X 24 in tray spacing) for one theoretical
plate or stage.
图1-8所示为各种随机填料。早期设计中为拉西环。拉西环是一段短管，它是处理量 低、效率低、压降高的填
料。现在的工业标准是使用开槽的金属(鲍尔)环。与拉西环相比，1 in开槽金属环构成的填料床有较高的传质效率
和较大的处理量。在凝析液稳定塔内，2 in开槽金属环的理论板等效高度约为36 in，略大于塔板典型设计中每块理
论板(或理论级)所需 的板间距34in（1.4块塔板×24in塔板间距）。

1. 5. 2. 2 Structured Packing
1. 5. 2. 2规整填料

A bed of structured packing consists of a bed support upon which elements of structured packing are placed. Beds of
structured packing typically have lower pressure drops than beds of random packing of comparable mass transfer
efficiency. Structured packing elements are composed of grids (metal or plastic) or woven mesh (metal or plastic) or of thin
vertical crimped sheets (metal, plastic, or ceramic) stacked parallel to each other. Fig. 1-9 shows examples of the vertical
crimped sheet style of structured packing.
规整填料床包括床支撑和在支撑上放置的规整填料组件。在传质效率相当 的条件下，规整填料床的压降一
般比随机填料床小。规整填料组件由格栅(金属或塑料)或编织丝网(金 属或塑料)或相互平行堆积的垂直波纹薄板(金

属、塑料或陶瓷)组成。图1-9所示为 垂直波纹薄板规整填料的示例。

The grid types of structured packing have very high capacities and very low efficiencies , and are typically used for
heat transfer or for vapor scrubbing. The wire mesh and the crimped sheet types of structured packing typically have lower
capacities and higher efficiencies than the grid type.
格栅型规整 填料的处理能力很高，但效率较低，常用于传热或蒸气净化。板型规整填料的处理能力较低，但效
率较高 。

1 .5 .3 Trays or Packing
1 .5 .3 塔板或填料

There is no umbrella answer. The choice is dictated by project scope (new tower or retrofit), current economics,
operating pressures, anticipated operating flexibility, and physical properties.
用塔板还是填料，对此尚无统一答案。应该根据工程范 围（新塔或旧塔翻新），现代经济学，操作压力，要求
的操作弹性和气液物理性质等选择塔板或填料。

1.5.3.1 Distillation Service
1.5.3.1 用于蒸馏

For distillation services , as in condensate stabilization, tray design is well understood, and many engineers are more
comfortable with trays than with packing. In the past, bubble cap trays were the standard. However, they arc not
commonly used in this service anymore. Sieve trays are inexpensive but offer a very narrow operating range when
compared with valve trays. Although valve trays offer a wider operating range than sieve trays, they have moving parts and
so may require more maintenance. High capacityhigh efficiency trays can be more expensive than standard valve trays.
However, high capacityhigh efficiency trays require smaller diameter towers, so they can offer significant savings in the
overall cost of the distillation tower. The high capacity high efficiency tray can also be an ideal candidaie for tower
retrofits in which increased throughputs are required for existing towers.
当用于像凝析液稳定这种 蒸馏时，许多工程师十分熟悉塔板的设计并喜欢使用塔板。以前泡罩塔板是标准设计，
然而现在已不再使 用这种塔板。筛板价格很低，但与阀板相比操作范围很窄。尽管阀板比筛板的操作范围宽，但阀
板存在运 动部件，所需的维修量较大。高处理量高效塔板的价格比标准阀板贵，但所需的塔径较小，能较好地节
省 蒸馏塔的总费用。当现有的塔需要增大处理量时，高处理量高效率塔板是塔翻新的理想选择。

Random packing has traditionally been used in small diameter ( <20 in ) towers. This is because it is easier and less
expensive to pack these small diameter towers. However random packed beds are prone to channeling and have poor
turndown characteristics when compared with trays. For these reasons, trays were preferred for tower diameters greater
than 20 in. In recent years an improved understanding of the impact of high pressure on packing performance has been
gained. Improved vapor and liquid distributor designs and modified bed heights have made the application of packing to
larger-diameter, high-pressure distillation towers more common. A properly designed packed bed system (packing, liquid
distributors, vapor distributors) can be an excellent choice for debottlenecking existing distillation towers.
在传统上，小直径(<20in) 塔内一直使用随机填料，因为向小直径塔内充装填料肠容易又省钱。然而与塔板相比，
随机填料容易发生 沟流且流量调节比特性较差，因此直径大于2in的塔曾倾向于使用塔板。近年来，高压对填料性
能的影 响已有了进一步的了解，蒸气和液体分配器的改进和床高的调整，使填料日益广泛地用于高压、大直径蒸馏
塔。设计合理的填料床系统(充装、液体分配器、蒸气分配器)可能是解决现有蒸馏塔瓶颈的极好选择。

1.5.3 .2 Stripping Service
1.5.3 .2用于气提

For stripping service, as in a glycol or amine contactor, bubble cap trays are the most common. In recent years, there
has been a growing movement toward crimped sheet structured packing. Improved vapor and liquid distributor design in

conjunotion with structured packing can lead to smaller-diameter and shorter stripping towers than can be obtained with
trays.
当用于诸如甘醇或胺接触塔的气提时常用泡罩塔板。近年来，已 逐步倾向于使用波纹板规整填料。与采用塔板
相比，应用改进的蒸气和液体分配器以及规整填料可使塔径 减小、塔高降低。

1.6 Gas Sweetening
1.6气体脱酸

In addition to heavy hydrocarbons and water vapor, natural gas often contains other contaminants that may have to
be removed. Carbon dioxide ( CO
2
) ,hydrogen sulfide ( H
2
S ) , and other sulfur compounds such as mercaptans are
compounds that may require complete or partial removal for acceptance by a gas purchaser. These compounds are known
as“acid gases”. H
2
S combined with water forms a weak form of sulfuric acid,while CO
2
and water forms carbonic acid，thus
the term “acid gas”.
除 重烃和水蒸气外。天然气还常含有必须脱除的其他污染物。气体买方常要求全部或部分地脱除CO
2 < br>，H
2
S和
其他硫化物(如硫醇)。这些组分称为“酸气”。H
2S与水结合可生成弱硫酸，而CO
2
和水可生成碳酸，“酸气”的称
谓便由此而来 。

Natural gas with H
2
S or other sulfur compounds present is called “ sour gas”， while gas with only CO
2
is called
“ sweet”. Both H
2
S and CO
2
are undesirable，as they cause corrosion and reduce the heating value and thus the sales
value of the gas. In addition, H
2
S may be lethal in very small quantities. The following shows physiological effects of H
2
S
concentrations in air.
含H
2
S或其他硫化物 的天然气称为“含硫天然气”，而仅含CO
2
的气体称为“甜气”或脱硫(无硫)天然气。H< br>2
S
和CO
2
都会引起腐蚀并减少天然气热值、降低销售价格，都是气 体内不希望存在的组分。此外极少量的H
2
S就可能
使人致死。下面说明空气中H2
S浓度的生理影响。

At 0. 13 ppm by volume, H
2
S can be sensed by smell. At 4. 6 ppm the smell is quite noticeable. As the concentration
increases beyond 200 ppm, the sense of smell fatigues , and the gas can no longer be detected by odor. Thus, H
2
S cannot
always be detected by smell. Even if H
2
S cannot be smelled, it is possible that there is sufficient H
2
S present to be life
threatening. At 500 ppm, H
2
S can no longer be smelled, but breathing problems and then death can be expected within
minutes. At concentrations above 700 to 1000 ppm, death can be immediate and without warning. Generally,a
concentration of 100 ppm H
2
S or more in a process stream is cause for concern and the taking of proper operating
precautions.
H
2
S体积分数为0.1310
6
时，就能察觉H
2
S气味; 体积分数为4. 610
6
时，气味已十分明显;浓度增加至20010
6
以 上时，会发生嗅觉疲劳，不能再靠气味察觉H
2
S,所以不能完全凭嗅觉探测是否存在H
2
S。即使闻不到H
2
S气味，
也可能存在对生命构成威胁的H
2
S浓度。体积分数为50010
6
时，已不能闻到H
2
S，但在几分 钟之内会休克，之后则
是死亡。体积分数为70010
6
或者更高时，没有任何征兆就 会立即死亡。在工艺流体内，H
2
S体积分数为10010
6
或
更高 时，一般需要给予关注并采取适当的预防措施。

Gas sales contracts for natural gases will limit the concentration of acid compounds. In the United States ,typically,gas
sales contracts will permit up to 2% to 3 % carbon dioxide and 0. 25 grain per 100 scf (approximately 4 ppm) of hydrogen
sulfide. The actual requirement for any sales contract may vary, depending upon negotiations between seller and
purchaser.
天然气销售合同中会限制 酸性组分的浓度。美国气体销售合同一般允许含有2%--3%以下的CO
2
和低于0.25
gr100 scf(体积分数约为4. 010
6
)的H
2
S。各 气体销售合同的要求可能不同，取决于买卖双方的谈判。

Next to sales contract specifications,corrosion protection ranks highest among the seasons for the removal of acid
gases. The partial pressure of the acid gas may be used as a measure whether treatment is required. The partial pressure
of a gas is defined as m t total pressure of the system times the mole% of the gaseous component. Where CO
2
present
with free water, a partial pressure of 30 psia or greater would indicate that CO
2
corrosion should be expected. If CO
2
is not
removed, inhibition and special metalinrgy may be required. Below 15 psia, CO
2
corrosion is not normally a
problem ,although inhibition may be required.
除销售合同规定外，防腐为脱除酸气的首要原因。可用酸气分压作为一种度量方式，确定是否需 要对天然
气进行脱酸处理。某气体的分压定义为:系统总压乘以该气体组分的摩尔分数。存在CO
2
和液态水时，CO
2
分压等于
或大于30 psia就会发生CO
2
腐蚀。若不脱除CO
2
，则可能需要加防腐剂和采用防腐的冶金技术;分压小于1 5 psia时，

尽管可能需要加防腐剂，但一般不会构成CO
2
腐蚀 问题。

H
2
S may cause hydrogen embrittlement in certain metals. National Association of Corrosion Engineers ( NACE) gives
two figures, according to the figures and the H
2
S concentration NACE recommends special metallurgy to guard against H
2
S
corrosion.
对于某些金属，H
2
S可能引起氢脆。美国腐蚀工 程师协会给出了两幅图表。根据H
2
S浓度和图表，美国腐蚀工
程师协会推荐了防止H
2
S腐蚀的特殊冶金技术。

In the sulfide stress cracking region, appropriate metallurgy is required in line piping, pressure vessels, etc. There is a
listing of acceptable steels in the NACE standard. Steels with a hardness of less than 22 Rockwell C hardness should be
used in areas where sulfide stress cracking is a problem.
在 硫化物应力开裂区会标准中列有适用钢材表配管用的管子、压力容器等需要采用合适的冶金技术。在美国腐
蚀工程师协在容易发生硫化物应力开裂的区域应采用硬度小于洛氏C硬度22的钢材。

1. 6 .1 Gas Sweetening Processes
1. 6 .1气脱硫工艺

Numerous processes have been developed for gas sweetening based on a variety of chemical and physical principles.
These processes can be classified as:
根据各种化学和物理原理开发了多种气体脱硫工艺。这些工艺可分为:

(1) Batch processes, e. g. , iron sponge,Chemsweet, SulfaCheck,and causticsoda. Because the reactant is discarded,
the use is limited to removing small amounts of sulfur, i. e . ,low gas flow rates andor small concentrations of hydrogen
sulfide.
（1）批量处理工艺，如海绵铁、Chemsweet , Sulfa Check和苛性钠等。由于反应物被废弃(不便再生)，故批量处
理工艺仅局限于脱除少量硫黄，即适 用于气体流量很小和或H
2
S浓度很低的场合。

(2) Aqueous amine solutions,e.g.,monoethanolamine (MEA) ,diethanolamine (DEA) ,diglycolamine
(DGA),methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) ,diisopropanolamine (DIPA). These solutions are regenerated and are used to
remove large amounts of sulfur, and CO
2
when needed.
（2）胺的水溶液，如一乙醇胺(MEA)、二乙醇胺(DEA )、二甘醇胺C DGA }、甲基二乙醇胺(MDEA) ,二异丙醇胺(DIP
A)等。这些溶液可以再生，用于脱除大量硫黄，需要时也可脱除CO
2
。

(3)Mixed solutions (mixtures of an amine,physical solvent and water), e. g. Sulfinol, Ucarsol,and Optisol. These
solutions also absorb organic sulfur and are capable of high acid gas loadings.
（3）混合溶液(胺、物理溶剂和水的混合物)，如矾胺法(Sulfinol ) , Ucarsol和Optisol等。这些溶液也吸收有机
硫并且有处理高酸气负荷的能力。

(4) Physical solvents, e.g. ,Selexol, Rectisol,Purisol Fluor Solvent. These can be regenerated without heat and
simultaneously dry the gas. They are used for bulk removal of CO
2
frequently offshore.
（4）物理溶剂，如Selexol(塞列克索法)、Reetisol(冷甲醇法)、 Purisol ( N一甲基毗咯烷酮吸收法)、Floor(弗卢
尔法)溶剂等。这些溶剂不加热就 能再生，同时还可使气体干燥。它们常用于海上脱除大量CO
2
。

(5) Hot potassium carbonate solutions ,e.g. , Hot Pot, Catacarb, and Benfield. These are chemical analogs of the
physical solvents.
（5）热碳酸钾溶液，如Hot Pot, Catacarb和Benfield等。它们是物理溶剂的化学类似物。

(6) Direct oxidation to sulfur, e.g. ,Claus, Stretford, Sulferox, LoCat, etc. These processes practically eliminate H
2
S
emissions.

（6）直接氧化为硫黄(直接氧化法)，如Claus(克劳斯法)、Stretfor d(蒽醌法). Sulferox LoGat(洛卡特法)等。一这些
工艺主要用于消除排放到环境的H
2
S。

(7) Adsorption, e.g. ,Linde, Zeochem, and Davison Chemical molecular sieves. The use is limited to low acid gas
concentrations, and the gas is simultaneously dried.
（7）吸附，如Linde(林德), Zeochem和Davison Chemical分子筛等，适用于酸气浓度低的情况，并同时使气体
脱水干燥。

(8) Membranes, e.g. ,AVIR , Air Products, Cynara (Dow ), and Monsanto are most suitable for bulk CO
2
separations,
especially when the feed-gas concentration is very high.
（8）膜分离，如AVIR, Air Products, Cynara (Dow)和Monsa nto等，特别适用于原料气内CO
2
浓度很高并从气流
中分出大量CO
2< br>的场合。

The batch and amine processes are used for over 90% of all onshore wellhead applications. Amines are preferred
when the lower operating cost— the chemical cost for batch processes is prohibitive—justifies the higher equipment cost.
The key is the sulfur content of the feed gas. Below 20 lbday batch processes are economical, and over 100 lbday amine
solutions are preferred.
在陆上并口应用中，批量处理和胺处 理工艺占90%以上。当较低的操作费用(批量处理所用化学剂的费用是很高
的)能抵偿较高的设备投资 费用时，采用胺处理较好。原料气中的硫含量是关键因素。小于20 lbd时，批处理工艺
较经济;高于100 lbd时，胺溶液工艺较好

1 . 6 .2 Amine Processes
1 . 6 .2胺工艺

Chemical solvent processes use an aqueous solution of a weak base to chemically react with and absorb the acid
gases in the natural gas stream. The absorption occurs as a result of the driving force of the partial pressure from the gas
to the liquid. The reactions involved are reversible by changing the system temperature or pressure,or both. Therefore, the
aqueous base solution can be regenerated and thus circulated in a continuous cycle. The majority of chemical solvent
processes use either an amine or carbonate solution.
化学溶剂工艺是用弱碱性水溶液吸收天然气流中的酸气， 并与之发生化学反应。由于从气体到液体存在分压驱
动力，于是便发生吸收。改变系统的温度或压力，或 同时改变压力和温度，所进行的反应是可逆的。因而，碱性水
溶液可以再生，并在连续的一段时间内可循 环使用。多数化学溶剂工艺使用胺或碳酸盐溶液。

Several processes are available that use the basic action of various amines. These amines can be categorized as
primary, secondary, or tertiary according to the number of organic groups bonded to the central nitrogen atom.
有多种使用各种胺碱性作用的有效工艺。根据连接到中心氮原子上有 机基团的数量，这些胺可分为伯醇胺、仲
醇胺和叔醇胺。

Primary amines are stronger bases than secondary amines, which are stronger than tertiary amines. Amines with
stronger base properties will be more reactive toward CO
2
and H
2
S gases and will form stronger chemical bonds.
伯醇胺的碱性强于仲醇胺，而仲醇胺的碱性又强于叔醇胺。胺的碱性愈强，与 CO
2
和 H
2
S的反应愈激烈，并
能形成较强的化学键。

A typical amine system is shown in Fig. 1-10. The sour gas enters the system through an inlet separator to remove any
entrained water or hydrocarbon liquids. Then the gas enters the bottom of the amine absorber and flows counter- current
to the amine solution. The absorber can be either a trayed or packed tower. Conventional packing is usually used for 20 in
or smaller diameter towers,and tray's or structured packing for larger towers. An optional outlet separator may be
included to recover entrained amines from the sweet gas.
图1-10所示为 典型的胺系统。含硫天然气通过人口分离器除去可能携带的水或烃液后进人系统。之后，气体进

< br>入胺吸收塔底部，并与胺溶液逆向流动。吸收塔可以是板式塔或填料塔。普通填料常用于20in或更小直 径的塔，而
板式塔或规整填料用于较大的塔。在气体出口可以设出口分离器(可选件)，以回收脱硫气体 携带的胺液。

The amine solution leaves the bottom of the absorber carrying with it the acid gases. This solution containing the
CO
2
；and H
2
S is referred to as the rich amine. From the absorber the rich amine is flashed to a flash tank to remove almost
all the dissolved hydrocarbon gases and entrained hydrocarbon condensates. A small percentage of the acid gases will also
flash to the vapor phase in this vessel. From the flash tank the rich amine proceeds to the richlean amine exchanger. This
exchanger recovers some of the sensible heat from the lean amine stream to decrease the heat duty on the amine reboiler.
The heated rich amine then enters the amine stripping tower where heat from the reboiler break's the bonds between the
amines and acid gases. The acid gases are removed overhead and lean amine is removed from the bottom of the stripper.
吸收了酸气的胺溶液由吸收塔底部流出。含有CO
2
和H2
S的溶液称为富胺液。从吸收塔来的富胺液进入闪蒸罐
闪蒸，基本上可脱除溶解在胺液内 的全部烃类气体和携带的烃类凝析液。在闪蒸罐内，还会有少量酸气闪蒸进入蒸
气相。富胺液由闪蒸罐流 人富贫胺液换热器。该换热器从贫胺溶液回收部分显热，以降低胺液再沸器的热负荷。
之后，加热后的富 胺溶液进人胺气提塔，由再沸器来的热量破坏了胺和酸气的化学键。酸气由塔顶排出，贫胺液从
气提塔塔 底流出。

The hot lean amine proceeds to the richlean amine exchanger and then to additional coolers to lower its
temperature to no less than 10 ℉ above the inlet gas temperature. This prevents hydrocarbons from condensing in the
amine solution when the amine contacts the sour gas. The cooled lean amine is then pumped up to the absorber pressure
and enters the top of the absorber. As the amine solution flows down the absorber it absorbs the acid gases. The rich
amine is then removed at the bottom of the tower and the cycle is repeated.
热贫胺液进入富贫胺液换热 器，之后进人胺液的另一冷却器中冷却降温，使胺液温度比入口原料气温度不超
过10
0F。这样，当胺液与脱硫天然气接触时可防止烃类在胺溶液内凝析。冷却后的贫胺液增压至吸收塔压力后，进
人吸收塔顶部。胺溶液沿吸收塔向下流动时，吸收酸气。富胺液由塔底流出，并重复上述循环。

Of the amine systems that are discussed, diethanolamine (DEA) is the most common. Even though a DEA system may
not be as efficient as some of the other chemical solvents,it may be less expensive to install because standard packaged
systems are readily available. In addition, it may be less expensive to operate and maintain because field personnel arc
likely to be more familiar with it.
在所讨论的胺系统中，最常使用的是二甘醇胺(DEA )。 与其他一些化学溶剂相比，DEA系统不一定最有效，但
容易购买到成套标准装置，安装费也用较低。此 外，由于现场人员熟悉DEA系统，其操作和维护费用也较低。

1. 6 .3 Physical Solvent Processes
1. 6 .3物理溶剂工艺

These processes are based on the solubility of the H
2
S andor CO
2
within the solvent, instead of on chemical reactions
between the acid gas and the- solvent. Solubility depends first and foremost on partial pressure and secondarily on
temperature . Higher acid-gas partial pressure and lower temperatures increase the solubility of H
2
S and CO
2
. in the
solvent and thus decrease the acid-gas components.
物理 溶剂工艺是从基于H
2
S和或CO
2
在溶剂内的溶解度，而非酸气和溶剂的化 学反应。溶解度首先取决于分压，
其次为温度。酸气分压高、温度低，可增加H
2
S和 CO
2
在溶剂内的溶解度，减少了天然气内的酸气组分。

Various organic solvents are used to absorb the acid gases. Regeneration of the solvent is accomplished by flashing to
lower pressures andor stripping with solvent vapor or inert gas. some solvents can be regenerated by flashing only and
require no heat. Other solvents require stripping and some heat. but typically the heat requirement are small compared to
chemical solvents.
许多有机溶剂可用于吸 收酸气。用降压闪蒸和或用溶剂蒸气或惰性气气提，可使溶剂再生。某些溶剂只能用
闪蒸再生，而且不需 要加热。另一些溶剂则需要气提，并需要加热，但对热的需求量通常小于化学溶剂。

Physical solvent processes have a high affinity for heavy hydrocarbons. If the natural gas stream is rich in C
3
+

hydrocarbons,then the use of a physical solvent process may result in a significant loss of the heavier molecular weight
hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are lost because they are released from the solvent with the acid gases and cannot be
economically recovered.
物理溶剂工艺对 重烃有高的亲和性。如果天然气流内富含C
3
+
烃类，则使用物理溶剂工艺可能损失大 址分子质
量较大的烃类。这些烃类与酸气一起从溶剂内解吸，而且通常不能经济地回收，会导致这些烃类 的损失。

Under the following circumstances physical solvent processes should be considered for gas sweetening：
在下述情况下，应该考虑用物理溶剂工艺进行气体脱硫:

(1) The partial pressure of the acid gases in the feed is 50 psi or higher.
（1）原料气内酸气分压等于或高于50 ppi;

(2) The concentration of heavy hydrocarbons in the gas stream is Iean in propane-plus.
（2）原料气内C
3
+
于重烃浓度很低，气流较贫;

(3) Only bulk removal of acid gases is required.
（3）仅需要大量的脱除酸气。

(4) Selective H
2
S removal is required.
（4）需要选择性脱除H
2
S。

A physical solvent process is shown in Fig. 1-11, The sour gas contacts using counter-current flow in the absorber. Rich
solvent from the absorber bottom is flashed in stages to a pressure near atmospheric. This causes the acid-gas partial
pressures to decrease;the acid gases evolve to the vapor phase and are removed. The regenerated solvent is then pumped
back to the absorber.
图1-11所示为一种物理溶剂工艺。含硫天然气在吸收塔内与溶剂逆流接触，从吸收塔底流出的富溶剂 逐级闪蒸
至接近大气压，这将使酸气分压降低，酸气进人蒸气相并被脱除。再生后的溶剂经泵增压后返回 吸收塔。

The example in Fig. 1-11 is a simple one in that flashing is sufficient to regenerate the solvent. Some solvents require a
stripping column just prior to the circulatiou pump.
图1 -11中只是一个简单的例子，在该例中用闪蒸法就能使溶剂再生。某些溶剂在循环泵前还需要设置气提塔（再< br>生）。

Most physical solvent processes are proprietary and are licensed by the company that developed the process.
多数的物理溶剂工艺具有专利，并由该开发该工艺公司注册。

1.6.4 Direct Conversion of H
2
S to Sulfur
1.6.4H
2
S直接转化为硫磺

The chemical and physical solvent processes previously discussed remove acid gases from the gas stream but result in
a release of H
2
S and CO
2
when the solvent is regenerated. The release of H
2
S to the atmosphere may he limited by
environmental regulations. The acid gases could be routed to an incinerator or flare , which would convert the H
2
S to SO
2
.
The allowable rate of SO
2
release to the atmosphere may also be limited by environmental regulation. For
example,currently the Texas Air Control Board generally limits H
2
S emissions to 4 lbhr (17.5 tonsyear) and SO
2
emissions
to 25 tonsyear. There are many specific restrictions on these limits and the allowable limits are revised periodically. In any
case, environmental regulations severely restrict the amount of H
2
S that can be vented or flared in the regeneration cycle.
上面讨论过的化学和物理溶剂工艺是从气 流内脱除酸气，但在溶剂再生时要释放出H
2
S和CO
2
。向大气排放H2
S
可能受环保法的限制。酸气可以送人焚烧炉或火炬，把H
2
S转变为 SO
2
。SO
2
向大气排放的允许量也可能受环保法的

限制。例如，得克萨斯州空气控制局目前的限制是H
2
S排放量小于4Ibh(17.5 ta)、SO
2
排放量小于25t a。对这两
种气体的排放还有许多专门的限制，而 且允许的排放量还在不断地修订。在任何情况下，环保法都严格限制在再生
期间向大气或火炬排放H2
S的数量。

Direct conversion processes use chemical reactions to oxidize H
2
S and produce elemental sulfur. These processes are
generally based either on the reaction of H
2
S and O
2
, or H
2
S and SO
2
. Both reactions yield water and elemental sulfur.
These processes are licensed and involve specialized catalysts anchor solvents. A direct conversion process can be used
directly on the produced gas stream. Where large flow rates are encountered it is more common to contact the produced
gas stream with a chemical or physical solvent and use a direct conversion process on the acid gas liberated in the
regeneration step.
直接转换工艺是利用化学反应将H
2
S氧化并生成元素硫(硫黄)。这些直接转换为硫黄的工艺一般是使H
2
S与O< br>2
反应，或使H
2
S与SO
2
反应。这两种反应都产生水和元 素硫。这些工艺都经注册，并有专用的催化剂和或溶剂。直
接转换工艺能直接用于所生产的气流。当气体 流量较大时，常使生产气流和化学或物理溶剂接触，再使用直接转换
工艺处理再生阶段释放的酸气。

1. 7 Dehydration of Natural Gas
1. 7天然气脱水

1. 7 .1 Hydrates
1. 7 .1水合物

Most natural gas contains substantial amounts of water vapor at the time it is produced from a well or separated from
an associated crude-oil stream. Water vapor must be removed from the gas stream because it will condense into liquid and
may cause hydrate formation as the gas is cooled from the high reservoir temperature to the cooler surface temperature.
Liquid water almost always accelerates corrosion, and the solid hydrates may pack solidly in gas-gathering systems.
resulting in partial or complete blocking of flow lines.
从井中采出或从伴生原油液流中分出的天然气， 多数含有大量水蒸气。当气体从较高的油气藏温度冷却至较低
的地表温度时，蒸汽会凝析成液态水并可能 生成水合物，因而必须从气流中脱除水蒸气。液态水总是会加速腐蚀，
而集气系统内的固态水合物会压实 ，从而部分或完全阻塞采气管线。

Hydrates are solid compounds that form as crystals and resemble snow in appearance. They are created by a reaction
of natural gas with water, and when formed, they are about 10 percent hydrocarbon and 90 percent water. Hydrates have
a specific gravity of about 0. 98 and will usually float in water and sink in hydrocarbon liquids. Water is always necessary
for hydrate formation as well as some turbulence in the flowing gas stream.
水合物是固态化合物，它是晶体，外形与雪类似。水合物由天然气与水反应而得，生成水合物时约有10%的烃
和90%的水。水合物的相对密度约为0.98，常浮于水面并在烃液中沉淀。形成水合物时气流中必须 有水，并存在一
定程度的湍流。


1. 7. 1. 1 Formation of Hydrates
1. 7. 1. 1水合物形成

The temperature at which hydrates will form depends upon the actual composition of the gas and the pressure of the
gas stream. Therefore, the chart shown in Fig. 1-12 cannot be completely accurate for all gases, but it is typical for many
gases. The chart shows the water content in pounds of water per MMscf of saturated gas at any pressure or temperature.
The dotted line crossing the family of curves shows the temperature at which hydrates will probably form at any given
pressure. Note that hydrates form more easily at higher pressures. At 1 500 psig , for example, hydrates may form at 70℉ .
Whereas at 200 psig hydrates will not form unless the gas is cooled to about 39℉。
生成水合物的温 度取决于气体真实组成和气流的压力。因此，图1-12对所有的气体并非完全精确，但是对许多
气体来 说是很典型的。图中表示在任一压力和温度下1 MMscf饱和气体内以1lb表示含水量。通过曲线簇的虚线 ，
表示在任一给定压力下可能生成水合物的温度。注意：在较高压力下更容易生成水合物。例如，在15 00 psig下，
可能在70℉生成水合物;而在200 psig下，气体要冷却到约39℉时才会生成水合物。

When a gas is cooled at constant pressure, it can hold less water in the vapor form. Therefore. cooling a gas will cause
some of the water vapor to condense with the balance remaining in the gas as water vapor. Pipeline specifications usually
require that the water-vapor content of natural gas be 7 lb per MMscf or less in order to minimize the problem of hydrate
formation in the transmission lines from the field to ultimate user. In some fields,hydrates form in the tubing and the
wellhead valves necessitating the application of heat down the hole to keep the well from freezing up. In most fields,
fortunately, the temperature of the gas at the wellhead is 100 ℉ or more;therefore,the hydrate problem does not usually
begin until the gas passes through the Christmas tree.
在恒压下冷却气体时，气体中能容纳的水蒸气量减少。因而，冷却 气体会引起一些水蒸气凝析，并与气体中残
存的水蒸气保持平衡。管道规范常要求1 MMscf天然气 中水蒸气含量等于或少于7lb，以减少从气田至最终用户间
输气干管内形成水合物的问题。某些气田在 油管(指井筒内的油管)和井口阀内形成水合物，这样就需要在井下加热，
以防止气井冰冻堵塞。然而对 于多数气田，井口气体温度都高于100℉，在采气树上游通常不会生成水合物。

1. 7. 2.1 Dew-point Depression
1. 7. 2.1露点降

Hydrates do not form in a gas line unless the gas is saturated and contains s till more water that, since it cannot be
absorbed, takes the form of free water. A t any specified pressure, hot gas takes more water vapor to reach the saturation
point than does cool gas. This means that cool gas that is saturated and has some free water in addition w ill absorb all the
free water when heated sufficiently at the same pressure. I f heated above this point, cool gas w ill not only take up all the
free water as water vapor and so prevent hydrate formation but will be undersaturated--that is， will be capable of
absorbing more water vapor than there is in the gas. For example, gas at 500 psia and 60 ℉ at the saturation point,
contains 30 lb of water per 1 million cu ft. The dew point of this gas is 60℉.
气体为水所饱和并含有不能被气体吸收的游离水时，才能在气管 内形成水合物。在任一规定压力下，温度高的
热气体达到饱和点时比温度低的冷气体含有更多的水蒸气。 这说明:饱和的并含有一些游离水的冷气体，在恒压下充
分加热会吸收全部游离水。在饱和点之上加热时 ，冷气体不仅吸收全部游离水使之成为水蒸气，防止形成水合物，
而且会使气体变成不饱和，即气体有吸 收更多（与其体内含水量相比）水蒸气的能力。例如，在500 psia和60℉下，
气体处于饱和点，1 MMcf气体饱和含水量约为30lb，该气体的露点为60℉。

Suppose this gas is going to be moved to New York in a transmission line with a temperature of 20 ℉. The saturation
point will then be 7 lb of water per 1 million cu ft. The original 30 lb of water, if left in the gas, will then exist in the form of
7 lb of water vapor and 23 lb of free water per 1 million cu ft, if the pressure remains the same. Suppose the gas is
processed in a dehydration unit and the dew point is depressed 50 ℉. This means that no free water will exist in the gas
until the temperature goes to 10℉ or lower. Gas at 500 psia and 10℉ contains about 5 lb of water vapor per 1 million cu
ft. Recalling that this gas originally contained 30 lb of water vapor per MMcf, it will be necessary to remove 25 lb of water
from each 1 million cu ft in order to depress the dew-point 50 ℉ . In principle,this is the job of the dehydration unit.
假如这种气体通过温度为20℉的输气管道送往纽约，则饱和点将是1 MMcf内有7lb水。若压力 保持不变，则
1MMcf气体中原有的30lb水，其中7lb以水蒸气存在，23 lb为游离水。在 脱水装置内对气体进行处理，露点下降
了50℉。这意味着温度下降至10℉或更低时，气体中才有游离 水。在500 psia和60℉下，1 MMcf气体中约含5 lb
水蒸气。该气体脱水前1 MMcf含30 lb水蒸气，为使露点降低50℉，1 MMcf气体必须脱除25 lb水。这就是脱水
装置的基本工作。

1. 7. 2. 2 Liquid- desiccant Dehydrators
1. 7. 2. 2液体干燥剂脱水

Natural gas at line temperature and pressure enters near the bottom of the absorber (Fig. 1-13) and rises through the
column where it is intimately contacted by a lean glycol solution flowing downward across bubble trays. Here the gas gives
up its water vapor to the glycol. Leaving the top tray, the gas passes through mist- extractor elements, sweeps the
glycol-cooling coils located in the upper end of the absorber, and passes to the pipeline. A small quantity of this dry gas is
withdrawn from the absorber discharge for use as fuel and instrument gas.
在管线温度和压力下，天然气在吸收塔底部附近进人塔内(图1-13 )，并沿塔身向上流动，气体与 向下流过泡罩
塔盘的贫甘醇溶液紧密接触。气体将所含的水蒸气传给甘醇。离开顶层塔盘后，气体通过除 雾部件和设在吸收塔顶
端的甘醇冷却盘管进入管线。从吸收塔气体出口抽出少量干气，用作燃料和仪表气 。

The lean glycol solution enters at the top of the absorber and flows through coils where it is cooled by the dehydrated
gas. From the cooling coils. the glycol is discharged in intimate contact with the ascending gas;this action dehydrates the
gas and dilutes the glycol at the same time. The dilute solution collects in the base of the absorber from which point it is
discharged to the reconccntrator or re boiler. En route,the solution is heated in a coil immersed in the glycol surge tank and
then discharged into the stripper, which is normally a packed column. The reconcentrated glycol solution accumulates in
the reboiler where it reaches maximum temperature,overflows into the glycol surge tanks where it is partially cooled by
heat exchange to the dilute glycol in the coil, and flows by gravity to the pump suction. The pump discharges the
concentrated solution into the cooling coil in the absorber, thus completing the cycle.

贫甘醇溶液由吸收塔顶部 进人，流经盘管时被脱水后的气体冷却。由冷却盘管流出的甘醇与上升的气流紧密接
触，气体在脱水的同 时还稀释了甘醇。稀溶液汇集于塔底，由塔底送往重沸器或提浓器。途中溶液由甘醇缓冲罐内
的盘管加热 ，然后送往气提解吸塔。该塔常为填料塔。提浓后的甘醇溶液在重沸器内聚集，器内溶液达到最高温度，
并溢流进人甘醇缓冲罐。在罐内因与盘管内的甘醇富液换热而部分冷却，并自流进入泵的人口，泵将提浓的溶液送
入吸收塔的冷却盘管，这样就完成了一个循环。

1. 7. 2. 3 Solid-desiccant Dehydrators
1. 7. 2. 3固体干燥剂脱水

Where the highest possible dew- point, depression is required, the solid- or dry- desiccant dehydration system is the
most effective type. It is not uncommon to process gas through these systems with a resultant residual water vapor in the
outlet gas of less than l2 lb per MMscf. In the average system, this might correspond to a dew point of -40℉ .
Dehydrators of this type are manufactured as packaged units ranging in capacity from 3 to 500 MMscfd with design
pressures of from 300 to 2 500 psig. Solid-desiccant units find their greatest application in gas transmission line systems.
当需要最大露点降时，固体或干的干燥剂脱水系统是最有效的方法。通过这些系统 处理后1MMscf出口气体中
残余水蒸气含量常少于12 1b。在常见的典型系统中，这相当于气体 的平均露点为-40℉。这种类型的脱水器常制造
成处理量范围为3~500 MMscfd、设计压力为300~2500 psig的成套装置。固体干燥剂装置广泛用于输气管系统。

The essential components of a solid- desiccant dehydrator installation are ：
固体干燥剂脱水装置的基本组件：

(1) An inlet-gas stream separator,usually a filter separator；
（1）一座原料气分离器，通常为过滤式分离器;；

(2) Two or more adsorption tower's (adsorbers or contactors) filled with a granular gas-drying material；
（2）两座或多座吸附塔(吸附器或接触器)，塔中装有粒状气体干燥物质；

(3) A high-temperature heater to provide hot regeneration gas for drying the desiccant in the towers
（3）一台高温加热炉，提供热再生气，使塔内的干燥剂干燥;

(4) A regencration-gas cooler for condensing water from the hot regeneration gas
（4）一台再生气冷却器，从热再生气中凝析出水分;

(5) A regeneration-gas separator to remove water from the regeneration-gas stream
（5）一座再生气分离器，从再生气流中分出凝析水;

(6) Piping , manifolds, switching valves, and controls to direct and control the flow of gases according to process
requirements.
（6）管系、管汇、切换阀门和控制器等，以便根据工艺要求控制气体的流向和流量。

The following terms apply to the technology of solid-desiccant dehydrations.
在固体干燥剂脱水工艺中常使用下列术语。

Wet gas is gas containing water vapor prior to flowing through the adsorber towers.
湿气:流过吸附塔前含水蒸气的气体。

Dry gas is gas that has been dehydrated by flowing through the adsorber towers.
干气:流过吸附塔脱水后的气体。

Regeneration gas is wet gas that has been heated in the regeneration-gas heater to temperatures of 400 ℉to 460
℉ . This gas is passed through a saturated adsorber tower to dry the tower and remove the previously adsorbed water.
再生气:经再生气加热炉加热至400~ 600℉的湿气。再生气通过被水饱和的吸附塔，使塔干操并除去先前所吸附
的水分。

Desiccant is a solid. granulated drying or dehydrating medium that has an extremely large effective surface area per
unit weight because of a multitude of microscopic pores and capillary openings. A typical desiccant might have as much as
4 million sq ft of surface area per 1 lb.
干燥剂:一种粒状固体干燥或脱水介质·由于这种介质有许多微小孔隙和毛细管孔道，所以其单位质量的 有效表
面积极大。一般,1 lb干燥剂具有4×10
6
ft
2
的表面积。

The term adsorption refers to the effect that natural forces have on the surface of a solid in tending to capture and
hold vapors and liquids on its surface. Adsorption processes as opposed to absorption processes, do not involve chemical
reactions. Adsorption is purely a surface phenomenon. All solids adsorb water to some extent,but their efficiency varies
primarily with the nature of the material, its internal connected porosity and its effective surface area. In most dehydration
systems, activated alumina (bauxite) or a silica-gel-type desiccant is used. Adsorbents are specific in nature, and not all
adsorbents are equally ent molecules will be attracted to adsorbents at different rates. Because of this ,
adsorbents are capable of separating materials preferentially, in either gaseous or liquid phases.
“吸附”是指在固体表面存在的、天然捕捉和截留蒸气、液体的现象。与吸收过程不 同，吸附过程没有化学反
应。吸附纯属表面现象。所有固体在一定程度上都能吸附水，但其效率主要随材 料性质、内部连通的孔隙度和有效
表面积而变化。许多脱水系统中都使用活性铝(铝矾土)或硅胶型干燥 剂。各种吸附剂都有其特有的性质，效果也不
相同。吸附剂对不同的分子有不同的吸附速率，因此不论对 气相或液相，吸附剂都有择优分离物料的能力。

This is accomplished by passing the stream to he treated through the tower packed with adsorbent. The degree of
adsorption is a function of operating temperature and pressure;adsorption,up to a point increases with pressure increase
and decreases with temperature increase. A bed may be regenerated by either decreasing its pressure or by increasing the
bed temperature. For practical reasons. dehydration towers arc regenerated by increasing the bed temperature by passing
a stream of very hot gas through the bed. The hot natural gas not only supplies heat but also acts as a carrier to remove
the water vapor from the bed. After the bed is heated to a predetermined temperature, it is cooled by the flow of
unheated ready for another adsorption cycle.
使欲处理的流体通过充填吸附剂的塔，就能实现物料分离。吸附的程度是操作温度和操 作压力的函数。在某一
点以前，随压力增高吸附量增多，随温度增高吸附量减小。吸附床可以用减压或升 温的方法再生。由于实用上的原
因，常使用温度极高的热气流通过床层，以提高床层温度的方法使脱水塔 再生。热天然气不仅提供热量，而且还作
为一种载体带走从床层内蒸出的水蒸气。床层加热至预定温度后 ，用未加热气流冷却，并为下一个吸附循环做好准
备。

Fig. 1-14 is a flow diagram of a two-tower solid-desiccant dehydration unit. The wet-inlet gas stream first passes
through an efficient inlet separator where free liquids,entrained mist, and solid panicles are removed. This is a very
important part of the system since free liquids may damage or destroy the desiccant bed and solids may plug it. If the plant
happens to be downstream of an amine unit or a compressor station ,a filter type inlet separator should be used. A t any
given time, one of the towers will be on stream in the adsorbing or drying cycle and the other tower will be in the process
of being regenerated and cooled.
图1-14所示为两塔固体干燥剂脱水装置的流 程图。湿原料气先通过一台高效入口分离器分出游离液体、气体所
携带的液雾和固体颗粒。这是系统中极 重要的部分，因为游离液可能损害或毁坏干燥剂床层，固体颗粒则会堵塞床
层。如吸附厂正处于压气站或 醇胺厂下游，应使用过滤式分离器。在任一给定时间内，一个塔处于吸附或干燥循环
流程，而另一个塔处 于再生和冷却流程。

Several automatically operated switching valves and a controller route the inlet gas and regeneration gas to the
proper tower at the proper lime. Typically, a tower will be on the adsorb cycle for from 4 to 12 hr, with 8 hr being the most

common time cycle. The lower being regenerated would be heated for about 6 hr and cooled during the remaining 2 hr.
Large volume systems may have three towers. At any given time, one tower would be in the adsorption cycle, one tower
would be in the heating cycle. and the remaining to w er would be in the cooling cycle.
若干自动操作的切换阀和一台控制器，将原料气、再 生气在合适的时间送入合适的塔内。的吸附周期一般为
4---12 h，8 h为最常见的周期。需再 生的塔被加热约6h，并在随后的2h内冷却。处理量大的系统可能有三个塔。
在任意给定时刻，一个塔 处于吸附循环，一个塔处于加热循环，第三个塔处于冷却循环。

As the wet inlet gas flows downward through the tower on the adsorption cycle, all of the adsorbable gas
components are adsorbed at different water vapor is immediately adsorbed in the top layers of the bed. Dry
hydrocarbon gas components (ethane, propane, butane, etc. ) passing on down through the bed are also adsorbed, with
the heavier components displacing the lighter components as the cycle proceeds. As the upper layers of desiccant become
saturated with water,the lower layer begin to see wet gas and begin adsorbing the water vapor,displacing the previously
adsorbed hydrocarbon each component in the inlet-gas stream there will be a section of bed depth,from
top to bottom,where the desiccant is saturated with that component and where the desiccant is just starting to see that
component.
在吸附循环中，湿原料气向下流过塔时，干燥剂以不同的速度吸附气 体内的各种组分。在床的顶层迅速吸附水
蒸气，(气体)向下继续流经床层时，(吸附剂)也吸附干的烃 气组分(乙烷、丙烷、丁烷等)。随着循环的进行，较重的
组分替代较轻的组分。当干燥剂顶层被水饱和 时，在较低的床层内开始出现湿气并开始吸附水蒸气，置换已吸附的
烃组分。对原料气流内的每种组分而 言，将占有一段床层，该段床层的顶部干燥剂被这种组分所饱和，而其底部刚
开始出现这种组分。

The depth of bed from saturation to initial adsorption is known as the mass-transfer zone. This is simply that zone or
section of the bed where a component is transferring its mass from the gas stream to the surface of the desiccant. As the
flow of gas continues, the mass-transfer zones move downward through the bed and water displaces all the previously
adsorbed gases until finally the entire bed is saturated with water vapor. When the bed is completely saturated with water
vapor, the outlet gas would be just as wet as the inlet gas. Obviously, the towers must be switched from adsorb cycle to
regeneration cycle before the bed has become completely saturated with water.
从饱和至开 始吸附，这一段床层高度称为传质区。在该段床层或传质区内，一种组分从原料气中传质至干燥剂
表面。 随着气体的继续流动传质区向下移动并通过吸附床，水置换原先吸附的所有气体组分，最后整个吸附床为水
蒸气所饱和。当吸附床被水蒸气完全饱和时，出口气体的湿度将与原料气的湿度相同。显然，在吸附沐破水完全 饱
和前，该塔必须从吸附循环切换至再生循环。

Regeneration gas is supplied by taking a portion of the entering wet-gas stream across a pressure reducing valve that
forces a portion of the upstream gas through the regeneration system. In most plants , a flow controller regulates the
volume of regeneration gas taken. This gas is sent through a heater, usually a salt-bath type, where it is heated to about
400 ℉ to 450℉ and then piped to the tow er being regenerated.
取 流经减压阀的湿原料气流的一部分作为再生气，使减压阀上游的部分气体通过再生系统。许多处理厂都用流
量控制器调节所取再生气的流量。再生气由加热炉(一般为盐浴加热炉)加热至400~450℉，然后用管线 送往正在再
生的塔内。